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CHAPTERS 



SCHOOL SUPERVISION" 



A Practical Treatise on Superintendence; Grading; Arranging Courses 

of Study ; The Preparation and Use of Blanks, Records, and 

Reports; Examinations for Promotion, Etc. 



BY 

WILLIAM H. PAYNE, A.M. 

Professor of the Science and the Art of Teaching, University of Michigan. 



NEW-YORK •:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO 
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 



Bnnouncement. 



The Publishers supply the following blanks, of 

which facsimiles are bound in this volume : — 

NO. III.— SUMMARY OF ATTENDANCE, facing page 136. 
NO. IX.— STATISTICAL REPORT, facing page 148. 
NO. XII.— AGES OF PUPILS ENTERED, facing page 154. 
NO. XVII— POSITION OF CLASSES, facing page 161. 

Mailing price, $1.67 per one hundred blanks. The 
remaining blanks in the book are designed as models, to 
be varied as individual needs may require, and are not 
of a character to be kept in stock. 



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.-«• •» 


» 


•»•• » o • •• 




Payne. 




•:/:":* 


"V\*\\ 


Copyright 

r ILSON, *HlNKLE 


& Co. 


Copyright, 


190.3, by William H. 

PAYNE SCH. SUP. 
E-P 17 





; 



THE LIBRARY OF 
CONGRESS, 

Two Copies Received 

AUG 22 1903 

Copyright Entry 

i LASS fl^ XXc. No 

COPY 3. 



Non viribus aut velocitatibus aut celeritate corporum res 
fjiagnce geruntur, sed consilio, auctoritate, sententia. 

* j¥ * gubematorem in navigando nihil agere dicant, 
quum alii malos scandant, alii per foros cursent, alii sentinam 
exhauriant, ille autem clavum tenens sedeat in puppi 
quietus. Cic, de Senec. vi. 



(3) 



PREFACE 



Every man is a debtor to his profession. At the outset 
of his career, the current practice which he adopts is an 
inheritance left him by his professional ancestry; and this, 
in turn, is to be transmitted to the next generation with 
such additions as his own industry, sagacity, and thrift, have 
been able to accumulate during a life of professional toil. 
Science grows by the increments — insignificant, perhaps, in 
themselves — which individual experience contributes to the 
common stock; and no one has a moral right to leave the 
world without taking care to assure to posterity the net re- 
sults of a life devoted to a special pursuit. 

The profession of teaching has not enjoyed a profusion of 
such legacies. While men in other professions willingly 
contribute the results of their matured experience to those 
who are to succeed them, teachers have been slow to render 
such a service to their professional brethren. Compared 
with Law, Medicine, and Theology, Teaching is almost 
without a professional literature. In the other professions 

named, not only is there a vast collection of practical works, 

(v) 



vi PREFACE. 

the recorded results of individual experience, but there are 
numerous treatises on the history and philosophy of the 
several sciences — attempts to collate the great facts in each 
art, and to deduce from them certain first principles which 
may serve to prepare the way for a more rational practice. 
Of works of the first class there are but comparatively few to 
which teachers may have access; while of the second class 
there is scarcely a single example, in English, which, with 
any propriety, can be called a treatise on the philosophy 
of education. The great law of the division of labor has 
called into existence a new class of professional men, whose 
duty is the supervision of schools and school systems; yet, 
up to this time, no work, not even the most elementary, has 
been published on an art whose importance can scarcely be 
over-estimated. 

The present work is offered as a contribution to the prac- 
tical literature of teaching. Its general scope and purpose 
are best explained by remarking that it is a record of ex- 
perience. The plans and suggestions which it embodies 
were not inspired by mere theories of what ought to be, 
or of what might be, but are the results which have been 
reached in the course of a considerable experience in the 
management of schools. It is not meant by this that all 
the plans herein contained are original; on the contrary, 
many of them have come, either by suggestion or adoption, 
from the current practice in school supervision. The writer 



PREFACE. vii 

will scarcely be robbed of any credit which really belongs 
to him, if the reader is left to infer that this book merely 
presents an outline of the practice which is current in our 
best graded -schools. 

It is due alike to the reader, the writer, and the critic, 
to state that this treatise is written from a particular point 
of view, — that of a superintendent of a school system such 
as is found in the smaller cities of this country. I do not 
presume to write for the instruction of those who superin- 
tend the school systems of our larger cities. Having had 
no experience in work of such magnitude and complexity, 
I have no fitness for giving advice as to the doing of this 
variety of school-work. 

I am not aware that a work of this special character has 
ever been presented to the public; and, as it has been 
composed without models to follow, it will, no doubt, be 
easy to base a just criticism both on its matter and its 
method. If it serve no other good purpose, it will, I 
hope, stimulate abler hands to execute a similar undertak- 
ing, more worthy of the profession whose interests it is de- 
signed to promote. 

The doctrines which are embodied in this work are ex- 
pressed with the utmost frankness, yet not, I hope, with 
any thing which borders on dogmatism. Freely granting to 
all men the right to express their opinions with freedom and 



vin PREFACE. 

emphasis, I here claim a similar right to express my con- 
victions on some disputed questions in educational policy. 
I see very clearly that some of the opinions which are here 
embodied will meet with a hearty protest in many candid 
minds; but, while I can not hope that the general line of 
policy which I have attempted to set forth will be accept- 
able to all, I think I may, without impropriety, bespeak 
that judicial fairness which dares to weigh opinions at vari- 
ance with cherished convictions. 

One remark may save the author from misinterpretation 
and the reader from possible mistakes. In all that relates 
to practical school-work, such as grading, tabulating courses 
of study, arranging programmes, etc., etc., the aim has 
been chiefly to illustrate the general principles which should 
be observed. In actual practice such modifications must 
be made as peculiar circumstances may require. 

I take pleasure in acknowledging my indebtedness to 
Superintendents Doty, Rickoff, and Harris for some of the 
forms included in this volume. Others have been prepared 
expressly for this work, and are the exclusive property of 
the Publishers. 

W. H. Payne. 



a.n, Mich., "I 
tg. i, 1873. j 



Adrian, Mich. 
Aua 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER I. 

PAGE 

The Nature and Value of Superintendence . . . . II 

CHAPTER II. 

The Superintendent's Powers defined and some of his General 

Duties discussed ......... 25 

CHAPTER III. 

The Superintendent's Powers defined and some of his General 

Duties discussed (continued) ...... 45 

CHAPTER IV. 

The Superintendent's Powers defined and some of his General 

Duties discussed (concluded) 67 

CHAPTER V. 
The Art of Grading Schools 81 

CHAPTER VI. 
The Art of Grading Schools (concluded) ..... 107 

CHAPTER VII. 
Reports, Records, and Blanks 133 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Examinations .......... 181 

(ix) 



BLANKS AND FORMS. 



NUMBER 

I. Teacher's Certificate 

II. Superintendent's Register 

III. Teacher's Monthly Report — to face 

IV. Transfer Notice 

V. Warning Notice (Attendance) 

VI. Suspension Notice (Teacher's) 

VII. Suspension Notice (Superintendent's) 

VIII. Notice of Restoration . 

IX. Statistical Report — to face 

X. School Directory Card (Pupil's) 

XI. School Directory Form (Teacher's, 

XII. Ages of Pupils (Superintendent's) — to fc 

XIII. Ages of Pupils (Teacher's) 

XIV. Report of Cases of Punishment 

XV. Daily Programme . 

XVI. Position of Classes (Teacher's) 

XVII. Position of Classes (Superintendent's) — to face 

XVIII. Notification to Parents (Standing) 

XIX. Notification to Parents (Conduct) 

XX. Teacher's Class-Book 

XXI. Teacher's Record of Monthly and Term Stand 

XXII. Principal's Record of Final Standing 

XXIII. Examination Roll 

XXIV. Notice to Parents (Low Standing) . 

XXV. Certificate of Completion of a Study 

XXVI. Notice to Examining Committee 



ing 



73 
136 
139 
144 

145 
146 

147 
148 

151 

152 
154 
155 
156 

159 
160 
161 
163 
164 
167 
168 
170 

193 
197 
198 
208 



N. B. — Many of these 
publishers. 



forms are copyrighted, and are the property of the 



CHAPTER I. 

THE NATURE AND VALUE OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 



(ID 



SUMMAR Y. 

Mental energy and muscular energy. Human society a hierarchy 
of forces. The highest forms of labor often undervalued. The 
highest form of labor that which involves the expenditure of the 
highest form of force. Division of labor a law of human progress. 
Civilization a process of differentiation. Division of labor as applied 
to education. A school system requires direction by one responsible 
head. Two varieties of labor are required in every systematized 
industry. Empiricism in teaching. The reign of law. The science 
of education. Educational science in Great Britain. The need of 
school supervision not every-where acknowledged. The responsi- 
bility of superintendents. 



(12) 



THE NATURE AND VALUE OF SUPER- 
INTENDENCE. 

i. Mental energy and muscular energy. — The hand 
and the brain both toil. Each has its appointed office to 
fulfill, and each is entitled to a consideration proportionate 
to the quality of the service which it renders. The energy 
which is expended in lifting and pounding has its measur- 
able value; and the mental power which determines the 
nature and amount of muscular activity has its value. But 
these values are not the same, and are not measurable by 
the same standard. The human organism is the seat of a 
hierarchy of forces. Some are appointed to command, 
others to obey; some are employed in devising plans, 
others in executing them; some work in silence, far re- 
moved from sensual observation, others are obtrusive and 
give ceaseless evidence of their existence. Mental energy 
and muscular energy have their respective values. Each 
is indispensable in the economy of nature, and each is to 
be valued according to its rank in the hierarchy to which 
it belongs. 

2. Human society a hierarchy of forces. — Human 
society is also a hierarchy of forces. Organization implies 
subordination. If there is to be a plan, some one must 
devise it, while others must execute it. As the members 
of the human body execute the behests of the supreme in- 

(13) 



14 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

telligence, so in human society the many must follow the 
direction of the few. It is not possible to conceive a state 
of society in which there are not inequalities based on 
gradations in the ability to govern. For one man who can 
design a house, there are a thousand who are able only to 
lay the brick and the stone as they are directed. For one 
man competent to plan a military campaign, there are myri- 
ads of soldiers whose province is to obey the orders of their 
commanders. Human society is organized on the principle 
that the weak are to be protected by the strong, the im- 
provident by the provident, and the masses of mankind 
voluntarily submit to the guidance of those who have the 
faculty of directing. 

3. The highest forms of labor often undervalued. — 

The energy which is expended in supervision, in direction, 
in government, is not always estimated at its just value. 
In general we estimate the value of labor by the amount 
of demonstration which accompanies it. The sailor who 
climbs the mast, who furls the sail, and who heaves out the 
bilge-water, seems a more useful man than the helmsman 
who scarcely moves a muscle of his body. So accustomed 
are we to measure all things by the impressions which they 
make on our senses, that we are slow to acknowledge the 
supreme importance of those imponderable forces which 
really govern and direct. The thunder terrifies, and so 
Jupiter Tonans is worshiped and propitiated. It was left 
to a later and a wiser age to discover that the agent which 
blasts and kills is as imponderable as thought. Men, too, 
are inclined to measure all labor by a reference to their 
own experience. Agricola, who sweats as he toils, and is 
covered with the dust which his own violent exertions have 
raised, can scarcely realize that Clericus, cool-browed and 
clean, is at all worthy of a laborer's hire. 



DIVISION OF LABOR. 15 

4. The highest form of labor that which involves 
the expenditure of the highest form of force. — But 

the highest form of labor is that which is attended with the 
expenditure of the highest form of force. Between muscu- 
lar energy and mental energy, the antithesis is too striking 
to be overlooked; but different orders of intellectual power 
may give their possessors unequal spheres of usefulness, and 
may therefore entitle them to unequal rates of compensa- 
tion. Abilities may be ranked according to their relative 
comprehensiveness. The commanding general, who, at one 
glance, takes in the whole military situation, and wields his 
forces so as to meet the exigencies of the situation, is the 
natural superior of the thousands who, with powers of mind 
less comprehensive, merely execute the plans prescribed by 
their leader. The highest forms of labor, therefore, are 
those which involve the expenditure of the highest forms 
of energy. 

5. Division of labor a law of human progress. — 

That distribution of labor which characterizes our higher 
civilization has established system and method in every 
branch of human industry. Where the several portions of 
a complicated process are assigned to special hands, a gen- 
eral plan must bind together the related parts, and secure 
their harmonious and efficient action; and back of this plan 
there must be an intelligence to coordinate and control. He 
who secures uniformity, accuracy, and harmony in a com- 
plicated industrial process, imparts additional value to the 
products of each man's toil. Superintendence is therefore 
not only a necessity, but is the highest and most productive 
form of labor. 

6. Civilization a process of differentiation. — Civili- 
zation is a process of differentiation. Rude tribes are homo- 
geneous with respect to their industrial state. There is no 



t6 school supervision. 

division of labor whereby each man devotes himself to that 
pursuit in which he has the most skill. But as civilization 
advances, occupations become more and more diverse, as 
men restrict themselves to industries more and more spe- 
cific. In new settlements, a tradesman sells hardware, gro- 
ceries, dry-goods, medicines, boots and shoes, etc. ; but as 
population increases, and other tradesmen come into com- 
petition with him, he restricts himself to a single branch 
of trade, in which he is specially skilled. In the tribal 
condition of mankind, the same man is priest, lawgiver, 
physician, and teacher; but soon there is a separation of 
functions, each man devoting his attention to the pursuit 
for which he has the greatest aptitude. As the priest was 
the most learned man in early communities, he was also 
the teacher; and the first schools were connected with 
places of religious worship. The church has ever been the 
foster-parent of the school; and Christianity has signalized 
her conquests by founding institutions of learning. Gradu- 
ally, however, the work of instruction has been relegated to 
laymen, and teaching has become a secular employment. 
But traditions are slow to disappear, and even now it is 
rare to find a college president who is not a clergyman, 
and there are few schools in which there are not religious 
observances of some description. 

7. Division of labor as applied to education. — 

Isolated schools may meet" the requirements of a sparse 
population; but in highly civilized and populous communi- 
ties, the work of instruction follows the great law of the 
division of labor, and different portions are assigned to 
those who have special aptitudes. It is soon discovered 
that children are best taught in a school by themselves: 
and if the number of pupils is sufficiently large, the adults 
are assigned to one teacher; those who are younger, to a 



T^WO VARIETIES OF LABOR. 17 

second; and the mere children, to a third. Thus there 
arises the idea of grades, based primarily on age, and 
finally on acquirements. Farther than this, certain branches 
of instruction are assigned, as specialties, to teachers who 
have a peculiar fitness for giving instruction in them. Pu- 
pils thus classified by age and attainments, and taught by 
those who are specially fitted for restricted portions of the 
work of instruction, constitute a Graded-School, or a system 
of such schools. 

8. A school system requires direction by one 
responsible head. — It is thus seen that the work of 
instruction follows the law which prevails in all other 
industries — differentiation, classification, system; and, as in 
a complicated process of manufacture, while each workman 
is held responsible for that part which he executes, some 
one man is held responsible for the general result; so in an 
extended system of instruction there should be a responsible 
head, able to devise plans in general and in detail, and 
vested with sufficient authority to keep all subordinates in 
their proper places, and at their assigned tasks. A graded- 
school of a thousand pupils and twenty teachers involves a 
system of great complexity, and requires the nicest adjust- 
ments in order to work with harmony and efficiency. The 
arrangement of courses of study, the examination and classi- 
fication of pupils, their discipline and correction, the over- 
sight of teachers, the compilation of records — these are 
some of the items on which depends the success of the 
system, and which require the attention of a single re- 
sponsible head. 

9. Two varieties of labor required in every sys- 
tematized industry. — Two varieties of labor are required 
in every occupation — that of planning and that of executing. 

Most men work after prescribed rules. It is easier to follow 
s. s.— 2. 



1 8 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

the footsteps of others than to beat a new path for ourselves. 
Some, however, are most naturally and successfully employed 
in organizing, planning, and supervising. This dhTerence is 
constitutional. While most men are content to know how a 
process is performed, a comparatively few are impelled to 
study the rationale of methods. In other words, there is 
empirical knowledge and scientific knowledge — a knowledge 
of processes merely, and a profounder knowledge of the 
laws which underlie these processes. The engineer who 
drives his engine merely from imitation, and the engineer 
who understands the construction of this wonderful machine 
and the mechanical principles which are involved in its 
working, possess two widely different grades of qualifications. 
The first is a machine in charge of a machine; to the other, 
the engine is as though it were transparent, revealing its 
minutest part, and wholly subject to his directing will. In 
case of accident, these two orders of knowledge are brought 
into striking contrast. The lower knowledge is useless in 
times of derangement — under abnormal circumstances; while 
the higher, being able to penetrate into the causes of dis- 
turbance, may restore the normal situation of affairs. The 
peculiar value of scientific knowledge is the extent of its 
previsions — previsions which may be employed either in 
anticipating and providing against disaster, or in devising 
new and better processes. 

10. Empiricism in teaching. — It is safe to say that 
there is no profession in which empiricism prevails to such 
an extent as in teaching. In other professions there is a 
course of preparatory training, designed to unfold the scien- 
tific principles which underlie the arts in question; and in 
actual practice there is constant reference to the laws which 
are involved in the various cases presenting themselves, and 
an effort to discover the causes of that which is abnormal, 



THE REIGN OF LAW. 19 

and thus to proceed by rational methods. In teaching, how- 
ever, tradition and imitation are dominant. In this country, 
at least, teaching is for the most part a mechanical employ- 
ment, and teachers differ from one another chiefly in industry 
and tact. To superintend the work of instruction with ad- 
vantage requires, at least, considerable executive ability, a 
somewhat complete knowledge of the branches taught, and 
ready skill in discipline. With these qualifications alone, a 
system of instruction may be kept from deteriorating, but it 
is not likely that it will be improved to any considerable 
extent — improved, that is, by the conception of more philo- 
sophic methods, and the skillful adaptation of means to de- 
sired ends. What is involved in an improvement purposely 
made ? A close scrutiny of the principles involved ; an ideal 
scheme of what is desirable; and an intelligent employment 
of adequate means. The improvement is first constructed in 
thought, by "the scientific use of the imagination," and then 
the plan is patiently embodied in practice. Superintendence, 
then, requires, in addition to practical skill, scientific pre- 
vision derived from a profounder knowledge of the science 
of education. 

11. The reign of law. — A characteristic feature of 
modern thought is the extension which has been given to 
the province of law. Formerly, physical phenomena alone 
were thought subject to the laws of cause and effect, while 
vast domains of nature were relegated to the caprices of 
chance ; but now, social phenomena and mental phenomena, 
the organization of society and the creations of the intelli- 
gence are admitted to be under the reign of law. If, even 
now, certain classes of phenomena can not be explained by 
bringing them under higher generalizations, it is not because 
they are not cases of a general law, but because the net- 
work is so complicated that human ingenuity has hitherto 



20 • SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

been unable to unravel it; yet it is certain that the whole 
current of modern thought is setting steadily in the direction 
of extending the domain of law, and hence of scientific pre- 
vision. It is thus that each art has its correlative science; 
that is, each process is recognized as depending on definite 
laws of cause and effect, a knowledge of which will serve 
to account for failures and to open up the way for studied 
improvements. 

12. The science of education. — Along with the dis- 
covery that mental phenomena may be explained by referring 
them to the general laws which regulate the processes of 
thinking, feeling, and willing, there has dawned the idea 
that education is not merely an imitative art, but that, in 
fact, it rests on an ascertainable basis of law, and that its 
processes may be perfected by bringing them into harmony 
with nature. While this conception is slowly gaining ground, 
educational methods are still chiefly empirical ; teaching is, 
for the most part, an art without principles, — a handicraft 
exercised from convenience or from necessity. To be enno- 
bled, an art must offer free scope to the exercise of the intel- 
lect ; the trained hand must derive fresh accessions of skill 
from the cultivated brain. Education is waiting to be thus 
ennobled; and coming generations should be trained by the 
skill of teachers who are able to adapt means to desired ends, 
through a knowledge of the laws which underlie the unfold- 
ings of the human intelligence, and even the assertions of the 
human will ; and if the great army of teachers must follow 
prescribed methods, they should be led by those who are 
master workmen, versed both in the theory and practice of 
teaching. How shall our educational methods be regen- 
erated? How shall they be subjected to revision and cor- 
rection? By what standard shall novel methods be tested? 
These queries disclose the need of recognized first principles 



ED UCA TION IN GREA T BRITAIN. 2 1 

to which we may refer for proof of the validity of our meth- 
ods, and by the light of which we may place the art of teach- 
ing in that course of progress which characterizes all other 
professions. Facilities should be given for the cultivation 
of this new science, and for bringing its truths to bear on 
the current practice of teaching. Superintendents of schools 
should be the apostles of this new gospel, and should preach 
its truths to those who depend on them for guidance. 

13. Educational science in Great Britain. — There 
is reason to think that an educational philosophy is now in 
process of formation, and that, ere long, there will be a 
rational escape from many of the uncertainties, absurdities, 
and embarrassments which now beset all varieties of school 
work. The following extract from a recent number of The 
Popular Science Monthly gives evidence of the direction in 
which educational thought in Great Britain is moving. 

' ' One of the most important papers read in the Section 
of Economic Science of the British Association was that by 
Mrs. Gray on the ' Science of Education.' The author com- 
plained that in Britain there is no adequate or general con- 
ception of what education is, and, therefore, of the magnitude 
and complexity of the facts on which a science of education, 
which can never be an exact, but only a mixed and applied 
science, must be based. We start with a confusion of terms, 
using education as synonymous with instruction; and the 
confusion of thought indicated by this misnomer runs through 
our whole treatment of the subject. It is surely time that 
this confusion should be replaced by a scientific conception 
of the process which should result in the most valuable of all 
products, — human beings developed to the full extent of their 
natural capacity. What is wanted is that teachers, like prac- 
tical navigators, should be furnished with the principles of a 
science they have not had to discover for themselves, and 



22 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

with charts to guide their general course, leaving to their in- 
dividual acumen the adaptations and modifications required 
by special circumstances. We have such knowledge to guide 
us in improving our breeds of cattle and our crops. Must 
we remain without it in the infinitely more important busi- 
ness of improving our human crop, of getting out of our 
human soil all that it can be made to yield for social and 
individual good? Must every tyro still be allowed to try 
experiments, not in corpore vili, but on the most delicate and 
precious of materials — the human body and mind — in the 
most powerful of all forces — human passions and the human 
will; experiments in which success or failure means virtue 
or vice, happiness or misery, lives worthy or unworthy; 
sowing with every action a seed of good or ill, to reproduce 
itself in an endless series beyond all human ken ? " 

14. The need of school supervision not every- 
where acknowledged. — It is an anomalous fact that 
while all men freely acknowledge the need of enlightened 
supervision in mechanical employments, in trade, and in 
government, there is often extreme reluctance to admit its 
value and necessity in the management of school systems. 
Men who themselves are most usefully employed in directing 
the affairs of a printing-office, of a book-store, or of a 
foundry, will deny to a school the right of having a respon- 
sible head. Nor is it difficult to account for this reluctance. 
First, there is the general fact that teaching is not generally 
regarded as an art having processes of its own, requiring 
skill of a special kind, and needing special preparation for 
its duties. In the view of all who have formed this notion 
of teaching, the man who is charged with the duty of super- 
vising the work of instruction is a supernumerary. Then 
there is the special fact that, as yet, there has not been a 
clear differentiation between teaching and superintendence. 



RESPONSIBILITY OF SUPERINTENDENTS. 23 

The fact that superintendence requires a different kind of 
knowledge, perhaps a higher order of knowledge, is not 
generally admitted. And thus it is that even if some over- 
sight is deemed to be requisite, it is assumed that it can be 
exercised in an unofficial capacity by the Board of Education 
or by some one of the regular teaching force. The real fact 
is, as I have attempted to show, that the complicated structure 
of a graded system of instruction requires a constant over- 
sight by one responsible head, able to direct the movements 
of the whole system, and vested with sufficient authority to 
enforce, if necessary, a compliance with his decisions; and, 
further, that, in response to this need, the law of the division 
of labor has called into existence, out of the teaching class, 
a new body of professional men who differ from teachers as 
an architect differs from the workmen who follow the plan 
which he has prescribed. 

15. The responsibility of superintendents. — By 

that inherent law of progress whereby vocations are special- 
ized, the active administration of city and village school 
systems has been intrusted to superintendents and principals. 
Though not authorized to expend a dollar of public funds on 
their own authority, they virtually direct the outlay of a large 
portion of the moneys raised for educational purposes. By 
common consent, superintendents are allowed to have an 
influential voice in the arrangement of courses of study, in 
the adoption of text-books, in the selection of teachers, in 
the purchase of apparatus, in the distribution of work, and, 
in general, in every important item of school economy. In 
reality, therefore, the turning point of success in public 
school affairs is the industry, skill, and good sense of those 
who are charged with the duty of employing the ways and 
means which the people so generously supply. It is a dis- 
creditable fact that, on the whole, the net results of our 



24 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

public school administration are far below what they ought to 
be, when considered with reference to the total expense at 
which they have been secured ; and it is a fact still more dis- 
creditable that, to a considerable extent, this result is charge- 
able to the incompetence of those who have the direct super- 
vision of schools — to a lack of professional skill in the 
performance of the trusts which have been assigned them. 
In all industries the condition of success is skilled labor — 
skill in the operative and skill in the oversight of operatives ; 
a skill which uses every item of material to the best purpose, 
and turns out the greatest amount of the best products. In 
teaching there is a lack of skilled labor, and especially of 
that variety of labor which is most truly productive — super- 
vision. It is to an awakened zeal among superintendents 
and principals that we must look for a body of doctrine 
which shall introduce rational processes into all departments 
of school work, and thus make possible an economical use 
of the resources which a generous people bestow on univer- 
sal education. 



CHAPTER II. 

THE SUPERINTENDENT'S POWERS DEFINED AND SOME 
OF HIS GENERAL DUTIES DISCUSSED. 



s.s.-s (25) 



SUMMAR Y. 

The people may delegate certain powers to a Board of Trustees. 
A Board of Trustees may assign certain duties to a superintendent 
of schools. Superintendents and principals. The time which may be 
profitably devoted to general supervision. A superintendent should 
not be subject to interference in the discharge of his professional du- 
ties. The classification of pupils. The selection of teachers. The 
examination of teachers. The sources from which graded-schools 
may derive their teachers. 



(26) 



THE SUPERINTENDENT'S POWERS AND DUTIES. 

16. The people may delegate certain powers to 
a Board of Trustees. — When the people have chosen a 
certain number of men, as their representatives, to administer 
a portion of their interests, a virtual contract has been made 
whereby these interests have passed for a time from their 
direct control into the hands of their agents. The powers 
thus assigned are irrevocable during the period for which 
these representatives are chosen, or until they are removed 
from office by impeachment or other legal process. Thus 
during their term of office the trustees of a school district 
have the entire administration of school affairs, and are not 
subject to the dictation of those by whom they were appointed. 
From the very nature of the representative system, certain 
limits are assigned to the jurisdiction of school officers ; but 
while acting within these limits, their official action should 
be dictated only by their own enlightened sense of duty. 
What end is gained in electing men of superior qualifications 
to official positions, unless they are granted some independent 
use of their own wisdom and discretion? Officials should 
certainly respect the honest convictions of their constituents, 
but they should as certainly be guided in their official acts 
by their own convictions of right and duty in all matters 
which have been intrusted to their care. In case of evident 
maladministration, the people may obtain legal redress; or 

(27) 



28 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

if there is dissatisfaction with the manner in which an officer 
has performed his duties, there is the effectual remedy, at 
the close of his official term, of choosing his successor. 
The employment of teachers, the fixing of their salaries, 
the selection of text-books, the adoption of courses of study, 
the purchase of libraries and apparatus are among the duties 
exclusively assigned to boards of trustees; and the integrity 
and intelligence with which these duties are performed will 
determine the efficiency and worth of the school system. 

17. A Board of Trustees may assign certain du- 
ties to a superintendent of schools. — By a further 
extension of the representative system, a board of trustees 
having charge of the general educational interests of a com- 
munity may delegate certain powers and assign correspond- 
ing duties to a superintendent of schools; and while acting 
within the limits of these delegated powers, this officer is as 
far removed from interference by the board of trustees as the 
latter is from interference by the people. 

In case the superintendent exceeds his prescribed powers, 
he is removable from office; or in case he does not perform 
his duties to the satisfaction of his superiors, they have a 
sufficient remedy in choosing his successor at the expiration 
of his term of office. The powers conferred on a superin- 
tendent of schools are usually determined by the rules and 
regulations of the governing body; and while there is some 
variation in the amount of authority given to this officer, his 
general duties may be stated as follows : 

(1) To classify pupils according to their attainments. 

(2) To advise the Board of the qualifications of the teachers 
employed, and to anticipate the vacancies which are likely 
to occur. 

(3) To enforce an observance of the courses of study and 
the use of the prescribed text-books. 



SUPERINTENDENTS AND PRINCIPALS. 29 

(4) In cases of difficulty, to assist teachers in the discipline 
of pupils, and to secure an observance of the rules and reg- 
ulations of the Board. 

(5) To prescribe rules for the conduct of pupils in the 
school buildings and on the school grounds. 

(6) To direct teachers in their methods of instruction and 
discipline. 

The superintendent is thus the executive officer of the 
Board, so far as the internal management of the school is 
concerned ; and whenever circumstances warrant the appoint- 
ment of a special officer of this kind, his distinctive work 
will be of the kind just mentioned. For the sake of setting 
forth the relation, growing out of these requirements, of the 
superintendent to the governing body under whose orders 
he acts, and of presenting in their appropriate connection 
some of the most important subjects pertaining to public 
school policy, several of the above topics will be discussed 
at considerable length. 

18. Superintendents and Principals. — In the West, 
where the graded-school system has been quite fully devel- 
oped, it is usual to appoint a superintendent when the aggre- 
gate enrollment is twelve hundred or upward. The tendency 
is to appoint a special officer in schools considerably smaller ; 
and in many schools of three or four hundred pupils the 
principal teacher styles himself superintendent. This, how- 
ever, is a manifest perversion of language. The time of a 
superintendent is exclusively or very largely employed in the 
general oversight of teachers and schools : he is rather an 
officer of the Board than a member of the corps of teachers. 
The principal teacher in a smaller school, on the other hand, 
is almost exclusively engaged in teaching, and his legitimate 
title is Principal. I suspect that this unauthorized use of 
titles is a weakness somewhat peculiar to the West, where 



3° 



SCHO 01 S UPER VI SI ON. 



almost every man in charge of a school with one assistant is 
a "Professor." This fondness for titles very justly exposes 
the profession of teaching to ridicule, and confounds ideas 
which should be kept distinct. 

When the aggregate enrollment is less than one thousand, 
the appointment of a superintendent is scarcely justifiable. 
In such cases, the principal of the school should be relieved 
from 'teaching for a part of his time, in order that he may 
give some attention to general supervision. He may very 
properly be held responsible for the classification of pupils 
and for their general discipline. By frequently convening 
teachers for consultation and instruction, and by occasional 
visits to their schools, he may secure a very efficient organ- 
ization. In some instances there is not a clear recognition 
of a principal's rights and duties; and, in consequence of 
this, there is danger of unnecessary and mischievous inter- 
ference in the internal affairs of the school. If a principal is 
worthy of his position, he is competent to maintain the effi- 
ciency of his school; and while held rigidly responsible for 
results, he should be granted all proper freedom of action. 
It is a great injustice to exact certain results and yet to with- 
hold means of attaining them. Responsibilities should be 
commensurate with facilities for meeting them. 

At the outset, there should be a distinct understanding as 
to the limits of the principal's authority. If necessary, let 
his duties be defined by contract, so that there may be no 
encroachment by either party on the rights of the other. 

19. The time which may be profitably devoted 
to general supervision. — The amount of time which 
should be employed in general supervision must be deter- 
mined by the circumstances in each special case. The only 
general rule which can be given is, that the head of a school 
should make his labor as remunerative as possible. The 



EMPLOYMENT OF TIME. 31 

amount of time which may be profitably employed in super- 
intendence will depend on the number of schools, their dis- 
tance from one another, the degree to which work has been 
systematized, and the efficiency of the teaching force. The 
need of supervision is relatively great when there is a large 
number of schools, when they are scattered over a considera- 
ble area, when the system is imperfectly developed, and 
when teachers are inefficient or inexperienced. 

Schools which employ forty teachers require the entire 
time of a superintendent. Where there are thirty teachers, 
and the schools are well organized, four-fifths of the super- 
intendent's time should be devoted to general supervision. 
With twenty teachers, the half of each day is enough for 
general purposes ; and where there are less than ten teachers 
in one building, not more than one-fifth of a principal's time 
need be given to supervision. These estimates are based on 
a normal condition of affairs. Under exceptional circum- 
stances, such as the inauguration of a new system or a con- 
siderable number of new teachers, more time will be required 
for the general oversight of affairs. 

It is well to recollect that the ultimate support of our 
public school system is the well-earned confidence of the 
people. Good schools will necessarily cost large sums of 
money. The people have every-where shown themselves 
willing to be taxed for educational purposes; but it is more 
than probable that, in the natural course of events, there 
may be developed a tendency to reaction; and it is hence 
incumbent on all who are charged with the administration 
of public school affairs to make all expenditures as remunera- 
tive as possible. Should the principal of a school which 
numbers one thousand pupils spend his entire time in "su- 
perintending," it is probable that his employers would soon 
become disgusted with a system which needed so much 



32 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

watching. Teachers who need such constant oversight can 
not be economically employed; and there is danger that 
even good teachers would lose their ability for independent 
work under such a system. 

20. A superintendent has his professional rights. — 

In cases where the superintendent is exclusively or chiefly 
occupied in the work of supervision, he should be held 
rigidly responsible for results, and should be allowed all 
necessary powers, privileges, and helps. In matters which 
are entirely within the sphere of his professional duties, 
he should work without hinderance; in others where there 
is concurrent authority, there should be conference; in 
others which are wholly within the prerogatives of the 
Board, he should not interfere even by suggestion. It is 
essential to the harmony and efficiency of a school that 
there be this clear definition of duties and prerogatives ; and 
wherever the line may fall, there should be the most exact 
observance of all that is implied in the contract. Competent 
and honorable men are made the better by being trusted. 
They will accomplish more and better work if confidence is 
placed in their discretion and ability. If a superintendent 
can not be trusted to do the work which belongs to his pro- 
fession, he should be discharged, and the management of the 
school placed in competent hands. 

Nothing is more fatal to the harmonious working of a 
school system than a misunderstanding of the relative powers 
and duties of the Board and the superintendent. The Board, 
as the governing body, should permit no trespass on its ex- 
clusive privileges; but, at the same time, there should be 
left to the superintendent a full scope for the performance 
of his duties as they may be defined by contract or other- 
wise. It is not difficult to see how a man, conscious of his 
ability to do the work required of him, may be annoyed by 



CLASSIFICATION OF PUPILS. 33 

needless interference; nor how such interference may be a 
real trespass on his rights. The mere fact that a man is 
placed in charge of such interests should be a guaranty that, 
while in the performance of his duties, his professional rights 
will be respected. When a physician is summoned to the 
bedside of an invalid, he is for a time invested with certain 
prerogatives which should shield him from dictation and in- 
terference. The fact of his being summoned is a virtual 
acknowledgment of his competence ; and so long as he is 
in charge of the case, no one has a moral right to dictate 
his method of practice. 

I am the farthest from justifying any mere assumption of 
dignity, power, or prerogative ; but it is clear that a super- 
intendent has some sphere of professional duty, however 
limited, and that within this sphere he should be trusted 
to exercise his skill unmolested. In general, these limits 
are settled by usage; but in cases where this unwritten 
law has no binding force, a definite understanding should 
prevent those divisions and disagreements which result so 
disastrously. 

21. The classification of pupils. — The duty of placing 
new pupils in classes where their time can be employed to 
the greatest advantage, and of making such reclassifications 
as ability and industry may make necessary, is one of the 
most important which a Board of Trustees can require of 
a superintendent. It has been urged as an objection to 
graded-schools, that sufficient provision is not made for dif- 
ferences in individual ability; that in case a pupil becomes 
able to do more work than his classmates, it is difficult, if not 
impossible, to give him a reclassification which will do him 
exact justice. This objection will be more fully considered 
in another place (§ 97) ; and it is mentioned here only to 
show that it may be removed, to a considerable extent, by 



34 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

exercising great care in classifying new pupils. For it is 
plain that when pupils have been once put in their proper 
places it will not be necessary, save under exceptional 
circumstances, to give them a reclassification before the 
close of the year, when there will occur a general readjust- 
ment of the school. 

It is convenient to distinguish three classes of new pupils. 

(i) Those who have never attended any school. 

(2) Those who come from graded- schools. 

(3) Those who come from ungraded schools. 

Nothing needs to be done with applicants of the first 
class except to place them in the first year of the primary 
grade. 

The classification of pupils who have been instructed in 
graded-schools is not attended with any special difficulty. 
Such is the general uniformity in graded courses of in- 
struction that a pupil may easily pass from one classified 
school to another and take up his work where it had been 
dropped. 

The work done in ungraded schools is usually unsymmet- 
rical. As studies are selected with but little regard to their 
natural order and intrinsic importance, it usually happens 
that there is considerable proficiency in some branches, 
while others, of the same grade, are almost wholly neglected. 
The direct result of this is, that, at the outset, it is impos- 
sible to give pupils who have been instructed in this un- 
systematic manner a rational classification. Proficiency in 
reading, or in arithmetic, may entitle them to enter one of 
the higher grades, while a relatively poor knowledge of 
grammar or of geography may make it necessary to classify 
them with pupils who are considerably younger. As a gen- 
eral rule, pupils who come from ungraded schools must be 
classed somewhat lower than those who have been taught 



CLASSIFICATION OF PUPILS. 35 

in graded-scliools ; but by reason of their age and greater 
maturity they will often make more rapid progress than 
their classmates, and may require, in consequence, a re- 
classification. As the first classification of such pupils must 
be, to some extent, provisional, it is best, in general, to 
anticipate the probable need of a reclassification, by placing 
them among pupils who are somewhat their superiors in 
point of scholarship. Even if, in spite of this precaution, 
they outgrow their first classification, the ability which has 
enabled them to attain this result will permit their transfer 
to a higher grade. 

In deciding on a pupil's fitness for admission, it is of the 
utmost importance to take into consideration his general 
ability. This ability, though depending primarily on innate 
mental habit, may also depend on health, industry, and 
acquired habits of study. Generally, older pupils have a 
maturity of mind which will enable them to accomplish 
more work than their younger classmates; but it will not 
be safe to take this for granted in all cases. If it is dis- 
covered that a pupil of limited acquirements has a mind of 
more than ordinary activity and power of comprehension, 
there need be no hesitation in giving him a higher classifi- 
cation than his mere literary attainments would justify. In 
all cases where it is impossible to classify a pupil of good 
ability with exactness, it is better to place him with superiors 
than with inferiors. Some margin should be allowed for the 
exercise of a pupil's reserve force. 

In making examinations for promotion, there is less oc- 
casion to inquire into a pupil's latent ability, since this has 
been transformed into actual acquirement. If a graded sys- 
tem of instruction is wisely administered, a pupil's ability, 
whether based on mental habit, health, or industry, will be 
concretely represented in his final standing. 



$6 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

22. The selection of teachers. — As the general suc- 
cess of a school depends very largely on the quality of its 
teaching force, and as the superintendent is expected to 
secure efficient instruction and discipline throughout all de- 
partments, it seems wholly reasonable that he should have 
some voice in the selection of teachers. In this matter the 
Board and superintendent should act concurrently. While 
the latter has no right to employ teachers on his own 
authority, it is certainly right that his opinion of their fit-' 
ness should be respected. It is conceivable that, through 
favoritism, he may recommend those who are unfit; or, 
through unworthy motives, may stand in the way of those 
who are deserving; but there is an effectual remedy for this 
evil, in a change of superintendent. 

On the other hand, by confiding, to some extent, the 
selection of teachers to his judgment, he is made to feel a 
personal interest in their success, as a failure would be a 
direct reflection on his sagacity and general ability. Be- 
sides, when teachers know that their positions depend in 
some measure on his estimate of their fitness, they will 
apply themselves the more earnestly to the execution of 
his plans. There must be some relation between subordi- 
nate teachers and their superior, whereby there shall be 
prompt obedience to authority; and there seems to be no 
more natural bond than that which results from the fact 
that positions are dependent somewhat on the will of the 
superintendent. It should be remarked, also, that there is 
no duty more beset with difficulties and embarrassments 
than that of being obliged to report the deficiencies of 
teachers to the governing body; and yet this duty, all 
important as it is, can not be reasonably exacted, unless 
*h.e right of exercising some choice in the selection of 
teachers is conceded. 



EXAMINATION OF TEACHERS. 37 

23. The examination of teachers. — Great caution 
should be exercised in the selection of teachers. Their 
literary qualifications should be ascertained with great care. 
When schools are organized under special acts, the exami- 
nation of teachers will devolve on the Board, or on the 
Committee on Teachers and Schools. The actual examina- 
tions are usually conducted by the superintendent, acting 
under the authority of the Board. These examinations 
should not be technical, calculated to exhibit the wisdom 
and shrewdness of the examiners, but should be designed 
to test the accuracy and extent of the teacher's knowledge. 
An examination by writing is preferable, because there will 
be exhibited some important items, such as penmanship, 
spelling, punctuation, and practical grammar, which would 
not sufficiently appear in an oral examination. Besides, the 
results of an examination conducted in this manner will 
form a permanent record, to which reference may be made 
in time of need. These papers should be marked as in 
an examination of pupils for promotion (§111); and the ap- 
plicants should be ranked, so far as their literary quali- 
fications are concerned, according to the average value of 
their papers. 

But while a certain degree of text-book knowledge is in- 
dispensable, this of itself is not sufficient to determine the 
fitness of an applicant for a situation. Literary ability is 
but one factor in the conditions of success. The amount 
of experience which candidates have had, their health, their 
manners, are all items of importance which should be taken 
into consideration. Yet excellence in all the points above 
named will not form a real teacher, unless there is an added 
quality which gives tone to the whole character — studentship. 

Education should be an inspiration ; and unless teachers 
themselves are enthusiastic students, they can not inspire 



38 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

their pupils with a love for books and study. A man whose 
present attainments are limited, but who is brimful of en- 
thusiasm for reading and study, is a hundredfold more likely 
to become a successful teacher than a man with a better 
furnished mind who has lost his zeal for intellectual pursuits. 
A steady growth in knowledge and culture should be required 
of every teacher ; and when it is known that one is passing 
his time in intellectual sloth, he should be made to give place 
to another who is worthy of preferment. 

Teachers who satisfy the requirements made of them 
should receive a certificate to that effect, which qualifies 
them to become candidates for vacancies which may .occur. 
A book of blank certificates, drawn up in the form of that on 
page 39, will furnish an exact and convenient record of the 
examinations, and of candidates who are eligible to positions. 

In order to estimate the comparative literary ability of 
candidates, it is desirable that each applicant should answer 
the same series of questions. Whenever it becomes neces- 
sary, a second series of the same scope may be substituted 
for the first. 

The following list of questions is intended to suggest the 
form of a written examination, suitable for ordinary use : 

State your name, age, the length of time you have taught, 
and whether you have made any special preparation for the 
business of teaching. 

(1) What works have you read on general literature, sci- 
ence, and mental philosophy? 

(2) What method of teaching children to read do you 
prefer ? What are the grounds of your preference ? 

(3) What objects would you seek to accomplish in the 
ordinary reading exercise? 

(4) How would you first instruct children in counting, 
adding, and subtracting? 



No. I. 



FORM OF CERTIFICATE. 



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40 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

(5) Name the first eight periods in their order. 

(6) Explain the subtracting of 5682 from 9007. 

(7) Add the fractions §, f, f , T 8 ¥ , and ^. 

(8) Divide -J by f and analyze the process. 

(9) If 3^ yards of cloth cost 7A dollars, how many yards 
can be bought for 20 f dollars? 

(10) What is the difference between a common fraction 
and a decimal fraction? 

(11) State the process of dividing one decimal fraction by 
another. 

(12) At six and one-fourth cents each, how many oranges 
can be bought for seven dollars and twenty cents ? 

(13) Sold sugar at 12} cents per pound, and lost 25 per 
cent. What was its cost? 

(14) Compute the interest on $325.52, for 2 years, 7 
months, and 18 days, at 7 per cent. 

(15) Explain the cause of the change of seasons. 

(16) Why is the tropic of Cancer 23^ degrees from the 
equator ? 

(17) Give the location and width of the zones. 

(18) Through what waters must a vessel pass in sailing 
from Chicago to London? 

(19) Describe the principal river systems of North America. 

(20) In what states, and in what direction from Chicago, 
are the following cities? Rochester, Lowell, New Haven, 
Columbia, Detroit, St. Louis, Montgomery, San Francisco. 

(21) Name the principal countries of Europe and their 
capitals. 

(22) Parse the words which are numbered in the follow- 
ing : " * Lord, be pleased to 2 shake 3 my clay cottage 4 before 
thou 5 throwest it 6 down. May it 7 totter awhile before 8 it 
doth tumble. 9 Let me be 10 summoned before I n am sur- 
prised. Deliver me 12 from sudden death. 13 Not from u sud- 



EXAMINATION OF TEACHERS. 4 1 

den death in 15 respect of itself, 16 for I care not 17 how 18 short 
my passage 19 be, so it be 20 safe. 21 But let it not 22 be sud- 
den in respect 23 of me." 

(23) Give the principal parts of the following verbs : Go, 
do, bring, think, sing, run, dream, ring, buy, eat. 

(24) Arrange the following in the form of blank verse : 
"Again the genius of old Rome shall from the dust uprear 
his reverend head, rous'd by the shout of millions, then 
before his high tribunal thou and I appear." 

(25) Name the principal historians, novelists, and poets 
of America. 

(26) What causes led to the Revolution, the War of 181 2, 
and the Rebellion ? 

(27) Name the thirteen original states. 

(28) Name the Presidents of the United States in their 
order. 

(29) State the manner in which an election for President 
takes place. 

(30) How are Senators and Representatives chosen, and 
for what period? 

(31) By what process is the blood purified by respiration? 

(32) How is the air of a school-room made unfit for use? 

(33) What precautions should be employed in regulating 
the temperature and purity of the air in school-rooms? 

(34) Explain the working of a common pump. 

(35) A cubic foot of water weighs 1,000 ounces. How 
many cubic feet will a ton of iron occupy, its specific 
gravity being 7.3 ? 

These questions will doubtless offend by their simplicity. 
They are intended as a protest against the popular theory 
of "exhaustive" examinations. Let it be recollected that, 
at best, the answers to examination questions are but expo- 
nents of what is known on certain topics. It is evidently 
s. s.- 4 . 



42 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

impossible to devise a series of questions which shall exhibit 
all the knowledge which a teacher has on a special subject. 
The best we can do is to establish certain data from which 
Ave may infer the extent of the candidate's knowledge. 
Thus, we may presume that a teacher who can give a clear 
analysis of the reduction of a complex fraction has a com- 
petent knowledge of common fractions; while ignorance on 
this point is not only of itself a partial disqualification, but. it 
involves an ignorance of the general subject. What seems 
desirable in a written examination is to bring into sharp 
outline certain portions of knowledge which involve an ac- 
quaintance with facts and principles of a lower order. If 
the purpose be to enter upon a minute examination into iso- 
lated facts, it will be best secured by an oral examination. 

24. The sources from which graded-schools may 
derive their teachers. — The sources from which graded- 
schools may receive their best supply of teachers is a ques- 
tion of great practical importance. My own conviction, 
based on a somewhat extended experience, is that if the 
system is crowned with a well organized high school, its 
graduates are likely to make the most successful teachers; 
and it is from this source that I believe our graded-schools 
are destined to draw recruits to their teaching force. Teach- 
ers who have completed a graded course of instruction 
which culminates in a well organized high school, have 
received literary advantages equal to those furnished by any 
institution below the college or the university. Besides, such 
teachers will almost invariably be in hearty sympathy with 
graded-school work. Teachers will teach chiefly as they 
have been taught, and will manage pupils as they them- 
selves were managed during the course of their education. 
And if it be true, as I think it is, that the best models of 
school management are to be found in our well organized 



NORMAL INSTRUCTION. 43 

graded-schools, I do not know in what other direction to 
look for a permanent supply of suitable teachers. 

If the reader will keep in mind the distinction which is 
elsewhere made (§ 9) between the great mass 'of teachers 
who know only the art of teaching, and the few who need 
to know the science of education, it will be seen that pro- 
vision is made above only for those who are to occupy 
subordinate positions. The higher professional education 
of teachers must be acquired in normal schools, or in still 
higher institutions of learning. 

It ought not to be inferred from the above suggestion that 
it is well to draw all the teachers of a school, or even a large 
proportion of them, from the school itself. Every school 
has its peculiar elements of w eakness and of strength : and 
the laws of heredity will work their results here as elsewhere. 
A repeated involution of peculiarities, such as is inevitable 
under the circumstances above supposed, will finally result 
in an abnormal condition of affairs. A school system can 
not be long maintained in a healthy state without the infu- 
sion of new elements. 

Some grade of normal instruction should be given in every 
first-class high school. Large cities should maintain a distinct 
normal school, whose membership should be composed of 
high school graduates ; while smaller school systems must be 
content with class instruction in the theory and practice of 
teaching. Such a class, composed of pupils who propose to 
teach, reciting twice a week and observing good models, 
may learn very much about the art of teaching. If such a 
book as Page's Theory and Practice of Teaching be used as a 
text, to be supplemented and illustrated, teachers may be 
thoroughly prepared for efficient work in city graded-schools. 

Normal instruction given in public schools is justifiable 
only on the ground that it is necessary for the maintenance 



44 SCHOOL SUPERVISION-. 

of the school system. Considered merely as a preparation 
for a specific vocation, it is no more within the province of 
public school work than instruction in medicine or law. 
The view here taken is, that teachers who have been edu- 
cated in graded-schools are thereby best qualified for doing 
graded-school work. If this is not a fact, then the same 
objection lies against normal instruction as against any other 
professional instruction. 

Universal education at public cost is justifiable only on 
the ground that it is required for the perpetuity of our civil 
institutions; and special instruction in any art or trade is 
justifiable only when the general public good requires it. If 
it were true that the country in general is suffering from the 
lack of competent blacksmiths, then it would be a public 
duty to provide for the training of this class of mechanics. 



CHAPTER III. 

THE SUPERINTENDENT'S POWERS DEFINED AND SOME 
OF HIS GENERAL DUTIES DISCUSSED 

(CONTINUED). 



(45) 



SUMMAR Y. 

The relative fitness of men and women for the management of 
schools. The use of prescribed books and conformity to the pre- 
scribed course of study. The maintenance of discipline. Corpoi-al 
punishment. Order in the buildings and on the grounds. Recesses. 
Text-books. 



(4&* 



THE SUPERINTENDENT'S POWERS AND DUTIES 

(continued). 

25. The relative fitness of men and women for 
the management of schools. — Still another question of 
great practical importance to superintendents and boards of 
education, is the relative fitness of men and women for the 
management of schools. This topic is now brought into 
prominence by its close relation to the general question of 
the "emancipation of women" which is agitating the public 
mind. The predominance of women in the school-room is 
taken as the type of her deserved sphere in all professions; 
and so the argument takes this form : ' ' Since women are 
successfully competing with men in the schools, why should 
they not have the liberty to compete with men every- 
where?" 

It is a fact that women now greatly outnumber men in 
the work of the school-room, and the tendency is rapidly 
toward a monopoly by women of this variety of labor; but 
still it is a question which at least admits of doubt, whether 
women are able to do with equal efficiency all the varieties 
of school work which men are doing. Are there not some 
portions of this work which women can do much better than 
men can do them ? Are there not other portions which men 
can do much better than women can do them ? Are not the 
united services of both needed for the highest success of a 

(47) 



48 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

school system? Analogous questions may be asked which 
every one can answer; and these answers ought to satisfy 
all who are in doubt as to woman's legitimate place in the 
schools. In the training of a family of children, is there 
not a part of the discipline which can be best administered 
by the mother ? Is there not another part which can be best 
administered by the father? Are not their united efforts 
needed for the proper training of the family? 

Let it be considered that the first and one of the most 
difficult duties of the teacher is. the discipline of the school, 
just as the first and one of the most difficult of parental 
duties is the discipline of the family. The question then at 
issue is this : Is a woman, as mother or teacher, able to suc- 
cessfully govern children during the successive periods of 
infancy, childhood, and adolescence? Reasoning from fact, 
we may learn from the many examples of families left in 
charge of the mother, that woman, unaided, is not equal to 
the task of training children in the way they should go; 
while the known instincts of woman, which prompt her to 
act from feeling rather than from deliberate purpose, will 
lead us to expect a weakness in her government of older 
children. In infancy and early childhood, when weakness 
demands affection, sympathy, and forbearance, woman is the 
heaven-appointed disciplinarian; but during the years when 
the passions exercise their sway, when the will is not con- 
trolled by principle, and the strengthened intellect is de- 
manding the right of self-direction, there is need of that 
judicial firmness which is characteristic of man's nature. 
Woman is naturally inclined to govern children by persua- 
sion ; and when this fails, as it will in multitudes of cases, 
she will not conquer an unwilling obedience, and so leaves 
them ungoverned. Persuasion and force, affection uninflu- 
enced by reason, and reason uninfluenced by affection, are 



WOMAN IN THE SCHOOLS. 49 

the extreme terms of an antithesis which has a real existence 
in human nature ; and it is by reciprocal modifications of 
these principles that the young are to be trained into habits 
of obedience. 

No ; woman can not do man's work in the schools ; and 
one of the greatest dangers which threaten our public school 
system is the gradual displacement of men from the higher 
departments, where their influence is especially needed. 
According to my understanding of the matter, children up 
to the age of nine years should be instructed and governed 
almost exclusively by women; from nine to fourteen, they 
may still be instructed by women, but should be subject, in 
case of need, to government by men ; while from the age of 
fourteen, they should be taught by both men and women, 
and should be subject still more to government by men. 
With respect to instruction, pupils may be taught by women 
exclusively till the end of the grammar grade; but beyond 
this there are some branches, as physics, chemistry, and 
mathematics, which are best taught by men. No one need 
expect to see a truly prosperous high school in the exclusive 
charge of women. Two essentials to success will be want- 
ing — healthy discipline and, in some branches, sound in- 
struction. It is just as repugnant to reason and to experi- 
ence to imagine a high school or college in the exclusive 
charge of women, as to imagine a primary school in the 
exclusive charge of men. Each is the climax of absurdity : 
each is a direct violation of the decrees of nature , for as long 
as there is sex, there will be characteristic intellectual differ- 
ences based on sex, and these differences will prescribe 
spheres of duty which can not be abandoned with impunity. 

Since the above was written, my eye has fallen on an ex^ 
tract from the Report of Albert P. Marble, Superintendent of 
Schools, Worcester, Mass., which seems to me to embody 

S. S.-5. 



50 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

so much practical wisdom, that I can not forbear to insert 
it in this connection : 

"Nothing is more certain than that the public schools 
have sadly decreased in effectiveness by forcing from the 
profession so many of the men. A broad-minded, judicious, 
and cultivated gentleman is needed at the head of every large 
school ; his influence is as essential to the right formation of 
character in school as is the father's influence in the proper 
rearing of a family. Another reason for increasing the num- 
ber of male teachers is, that a more conservative element — 
more permanency — may be introduced into the school sys- 
tem among the necessary changes just described. With a 
competent and permanent head for each school, to preserve 
the unity, the continuity, and the proper succession of school 
studies, a teacher may drop out here and there without ma- 
terial loss. 

"To secure and retain this increased number of men of 
this excellence, it would be necessary to pay them liberally, 
and to secure for the profession a recognized position, such 
as it hardly holds at present. This status of the profession, 
however, its own members will take care of. The question 
of salary would involve some additional expense; for men 
of the right character and ambition for the work they are to 
do will have families which they must support. 

" Right here we are met by the inquiry, Why not increase 
the pay of your lady teachers, and thus secure them perma- 
nently? Because the pay would not hold those whom we 
most wish to retain, when the trial comes; and because a 
kind of influence is needed which woman can not exert. 
Do what she will, try as she may, no true woman can so 
obliterate the mental and spiritual, any more than the phys- 
ical marks by which the Creator has distinguished and glori- 
fied her, as to act to perfection the man. The thousand 



WOMAN IN THE SCHOOLS. 51 

little differences of character which display themselves in 
male and female teachers are fully recognized by all except 
the few who, in laboring for what they call the elevation of 
woman, think it necessary to establish her identity with man, 
in order to disprove her inferiority. 

"What we need is more of strong manly character in our 
schools ; and to secure this we must attract it from other 
callings. As for having the work done as well by women, 
there is a part which she can do far better, a part equally 
well, and a part not at all. Her superiority in educating 
little children, when the heart is in the work, can not be 
denied ; her equality in the work of instruction is plain ; but 
drill is not all of school. In the development of character, 
the influence of woman is indispensable ; but she alone would 
make boys womanish and girls not altogether womanly. 

"There is an exciting question about paying a woman the 
same salary as a man for the same work ! No one will deny 
the justice of this demand. The work needed, and for which 
I am contending, is what she can not do. There is, there- 
fore, no competition. There is, moreover, a law of supply 
and demand which regulates prices ; they can not be regu- 
lated by legislative enactments. The price of wheat can not 
be fixed by statute. If an educated woman is wanted to fill 
a certain position, and ten stand ready to take it at $1,000, 
each fully competent, is there any propriety in paying $2,000? 
Will that help the nine ? If an educated man is wanted for 
a position at $2,000, which a man only can fill, and a suita- 
ble man can not be secured for less than $2,500, will it be 
best to take one of the nine women ? At any rate, this is 
what we have been doing thirty or forty years, and, as many 
persons best qualified to judge think, with injury to the 
schools. 

"Is there any reason in the constitution of society why 



52 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

there should be ten women for the one place and not the 
right man for the other? There are indisputable indications 
that men and women are in all respects the counterparts of 
each other. The Creator did not fall into an error when he 
made woman, as certain modern reformers would seem to 
imply. In all civil society, since there was a civil society, 
man has been regarded as the bread-winner and woman the 
house-keeper. Probably this is about right, since a great 
deal of homely joy has resulted. A young man who rightly 
expects in the main to carry out this idea, will not and 
ought not to enter a profession without promise. On the 
other hand, there is a large class of self-dependent women. 
The majority of those who teach are young. Many, with 
true heroism, labor and secure for themselves not only a 
livelihood, but the means of improvement, and a culture and 
refinement that ought to be the envy of indolent ladies of 
wealth. These heroic women are worthy of all honor, but 
should they be treated as the rule or the exception ? Should 
laws and customs be changed as if all women were to take 
such places? 

"This question of employment and salaries for women is 
deeper than the surface. The present order of things, in this 
regard, has its foundation in the very organization of society. 
That order, with all- its defects, should not be rudely changed 
at the risk of greater evils. 

' ' In what has thus far been said, I wish to be distinctly 
understood as not undervaluing the services of women in the 
schools. In all which is common between male and female 
teachers, I can match the best man with an equally excellent 
woman ; while in that which belongs to woman only, she is 
the superior. The influence of man, now too feebly felt in 
the schools, is what is here contended for. If the proportion 
of male and female teachers were reversed, this whole argu- 



USE OF PRESCRIBED BOOKS. 55 

ment would apply to the other side; but as it is, the one 
thing needful for our public schools is to add permanently to 
the corps of teachers twice the number of men, and. only 
those of the better class." 

26. The use of prescribed books and conformity 
to the prescribed course of study. — All organized 
bodies are threatened with the danger of disintegration, and 
the highest forms of organization are most exposed to disin- 
tegrating forces. In graded-schools, the tendency to disor- 
ganization is felt in the unwillingness of pupils to conform to 
the requirements of classification. This protest against con- 
formity to the established order of things may manifest itself 
in unwillingness to use prescribed text-books, or to pursue 
the appointed studies of the course. Even now it is not 
quite clear to all parents why their children may not be 
allowed to use whatever books it suits their convenience to 
furnish; and to many it appears like an arbitrary act to 
refuse a free choice in the selection of studies. Noncon- 
formity in either case, however, can not be tolerated without 
great danger to the system; and ceaseless vigilance should 
be exercised against the encroachments of this evil. Two 
things should be absolutely forbidden : the use of any text- 
book not in the prescribed list, and the study of any subject 
not included in the prescribed course. To allow either of 
these things to be done is to sanction the gradual disorgan- 
ization of a graded-school. 

But it does not follow from these prohibitions that every 
pupil must necessarily pursue all the studies which are pre- 
scribed for a given grade. The organization of the school — 
the prescribed number and sequence of studies — may remain 
intact, even if some pupils pursue only a part of the course. 
Disorganization will set in only when no one chooses to pur- 
sue a given study of the course. In this case, the contiruuty 



54 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

of the course will be broken, and the first downward step 
will be taken toward an ungraded school. The greatest 
good of pupils in general, and the highest prosperity of the 
school, — two things which are inseparable even in thought, — 
both require a close conformity to the prescribed course of 
instruction; but there are cases in which exceptions may be 
made to this general rule with advantage to individual pupils 
and without harm to the general system. Pupils may be 
excused from certain studies of the course under the follow- 
ing circumstances : 

(i) When a pupil's health will not permit him to take the 
full course, and there is the alternative of taking a part of it 
or of leaving school altogether. 

(2) When a pupil can spend but a short time in school, 
and has good reasons for bestowing all his attention on two 
or three selected studies. 

When these exceptions are made, it should be with the 
distinct understanding that the pupils who avail themselves 
of them are disqualified for promotion. It is plain that one 
part of a graded course must be completed before a succeed- 
ing part can be attempted. This check is absolutely required 
in order to preserve the integrity of the system, and will be 
found sufficient to prevent any unnecessary exceptions to the 
general rule. 

27. The maintenance of discipline. — The strength, 
or it may be the weakness, of a superintendent or of a prin- 
cipal, is nowhere so clearly shown as in the general discipline 
of the school. Individual teachers, in cases of extreme diffi- 
culty which will occur at intervals, must of necessity rely on 
their superior for the enforcement of obedience. At any 
rate, the head of a school must take some stand in this 
matter, since pupils or their parents will certainly appeal to 
him, on occasion, for a redress of wrongs real or imagined. 



MAINTENANCE OF DISCIPLINE. 55 

Teachers will secure that degree of discipline which they 
are sustained in enforcing, or which they are required to en- 
force ; and any weakness, indecision, or vacillation in the 
superintendent will immediately show its effects in the 
school. 

For the maintenance of healthy discipline, it is not neces- 
sary that there should be great severity in the punishment 
of offenses. The absolute certainty that the teacher's au- 
thority will be upheld, and that, in case of need, the supreme 
authority in the school will be invoked, is, in most cases, 
sufficient in itself to hold the evil propensities of pupils in 
check. On the contrary, a want of firmness will encourage 
the spirit of revolt, and make necessary a frequent resort to 
punishments of one kind or another. 

The sense of justice is strong even in the case of vicious 
children. They know that disobedience and wrong-doing in 
general deserve punishment; and, provided the good intent 
of the disciplinarian is manifest, and the degree of punish- 
ment does not exceed its just bounds, no feeling of resent- 
ment will be cherished toward him who inflicts the penalty. 
While children soon learn to feel a contempt for a superior 
who does not insist on respectful obedience, they instinct- 
ively admire that manly energy of character which metes 
out to offenders their deserved punishment. If, however, 
pupils are punished in anger or beyond measure, it is 
probable that evil and not good will be done. 

Every effort should be made to convince pupils that they 
will encounter the consequences of their own wrong-doing; 
that if trouble must come, they, and not their superiors, will 
be responsible for it. , To this end it is often best to defer 
a punishment, giving the offender chance to mend his ways. 
In this case there is danger, of course, that the pupil may 
presume on such forbearance, and feel encouraged to perse- 



56 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

vere in his evil ways; but the remedy for this is the well- 
known firmness of the authority which can afford to wait, 
but which is neither forgetful nor neglectful. 

In what has preceded it is tacitly assumed that there are 
occasions in which corporal punishment is necessary, and 
therefore justifiable. While I am conscious that many judi- 
cious educators discard this manner of discipline, I am free 
to express my conviction that it is sometimes the teacher's 
only available resource to secure to the school and to the 
offender their respective rights. A school must be preserved 
from disorder and from the contagion of bad examples; and 
there is no more sacred duty binding on parents and teachers 
than to require of children prompt and respectful obedience. 
Children should be exhorted and encouraged in every proper 
manner to do right, because the doing of right is in itself a 
comely and virtuous thing; but when exhortation, expostula- 
tion, and admonition have no effect, what is to be done? 
Manifestly, that degree of force should be employed which 
will conquer obedience. All will allow that a cheerful, vol- 
untary obedience is the truly desirable thing; but. is not an 
enforced obedience to be preferred to disobedience? 

Government is positive, not negative ; it does not consist 
in advising people what to do, leaving the matter, in the end, 
to their own discretion. It assumes that some will choose to 
do what ought not to be done, and so places before them a 
penalty sufficient to secure an enforced obedience. In the 
absence of internal motives to do right, the law holds forth 
an artificial motive in the form of a penalty attached to vio- 
lations of prescribed laws. 

28. Corporal punishment. — As a last resort, there- 
fore, force is justifiable. Now force, when actually brought 
to bear on an offender, resolves itself into some bodily 
affection. There is either some restraint put upon the usual 



CORPORAL PUNISHMENT. 57 

bodily activities, or, proceeding to extremities, there is an 
infliction of bodily pain. This last constitutes corporal pun- 
ishment as generally understood. If, then, it is allowed that 
obedience is necessary, it will take place under some one of 
the following cases : 

(1) Spontaneously — without any traceable suggestion — ■ 
by the unconscious promptings of one's moral nature. 

(2) By suggestion, advice, admonition, or warning. 

(3) By some restraint on personal liberties. 

(4) By the infliction of bodily pain. 

Up to this point it is scarcely conceivable that there is real 
ground for difference of opinion ; but when the subject is 
considered with special reference to public school policy, 
two theories may be maintained : 

(a) An observance of the rules and regulations shall be a 
condition of school membership ; and when obedience is not 
rendered as under cases (1) and (2), the offender is to be 
suspended from school. 

(b) One of the objects of public school training is to incul- 
cate the habit of obedience and a respect for authority ; and 
to this end, in cases where obedience is not rendered as 
above, teachers may restrain the liberties of pupils; or, if 
this does not suffice, they may resort to the extreme measure 
of inflicting pain. 

There is no doubt that all teachers would prefer to work 
under the first plan : it would make the task of governing 
infinitely easy. In fact, there would be no such thing as 
school government, in the proper sense of the term ; for 
whenever pupils did not yield a voluntary obedience, they 
would cease to require any positive direction by the teacher. 
But it is quite as certain that most parents wish to place 
upon the teachers of their children the task of securing obe- 
dience, even at the expense of inflicting needed corporal 



58 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

punishment. In general, there is nothing against which 
parents more heartily protest than the trouble and vexation 
of correcting children for offenses committed in school. 
" Have they not enough to do to attend to the correction 
of their children for home faults? Should not teachers be 
competent to govern their pupils? What fitness have they 
for their office, if they can not enforce obedience when occa- 
sion requires?" 

This is the current theory held by parents ; and until there 
is a decided change in public sentiment, I do not see how 
the schools can renounce the duty of securing obedience 
even at the expense of corporal punishment. Teachers 
would most gladly be relieved from such a disagreeable 
task. It is not from any fondness for the punishing of 
pupils that they persist in it, but because they believe it to 
be a duty imposed on them by the public whose servants 
they are. But they may rightly demand at least a partial 
release from this most ungrateful duty. In cases where 
pupils persist in wrong-doing, uninfluenced by mild meas- 
ures, parents should be asked to choose between correcting 
their children themselves and submitting them to such dis- 
cipline as the teacher may judge necessary. Two good 
results would come from this course : responsibility for the 
bad conduct of children would be placed where it in great 
part belongs, and school authorities would be shielded from 
any imputation of needlessly resorting to corporal punish- 
ment. 

Is it not possible that those who are so radically opposed 
to corporal punishment make the mistake of looking on hu- 
man nature as it ought to be, and not as it actually is ? 
Most children are not in that moral condition in which good 
conduct is determined by the unconscious impulses of a 
noble nature; and but very few teachers have reached that 



ORDER IN BUILDINGS. 59 

degree of perfection whereby they can govern pupils by 
"moral suasion" alone. It is true that the best teachers 
have least occasion to employ force ; perhaps it is true that 
teachers are good just in proportion as they can govern by 
tact, sympathy, or affection; but it does not follow from this 
that the more imperfect modes of discipline should be aban- 
doned. If teachers are required to secure obedience, they 
should do it by the mildest means at their command; but 
they must do it at all hazards. Here, as elsewhere, human 
imperfection must be recognized as a fact; and while we are 
required to do a certain work, we must be allowed to use 
our own tools, even though they are imperfect. In other 
words, it is better that a school should be governed by harsh 
methods than not be governed at all. 

As a general rule, children who are well governed at home 
occasion no trouble in school ; while most of the ' ' incorrigi- 
bles" who vex teachers' souls are the product of parental 
mismanagement. There is but little hope, therefore, that 
any reform will be worked in such cases by remanding 
offenders to home discipline. By reason of the strong and 
almost inexplicable influence which is exercised by numbers, 
it sometimes happens that children who are models of pro- 
priety at home are tempted into bad conduct in school. 
Such cases, in general, can be cured by cooperating with the 
home authorities ; and if all cases of discipline were of this 
class, the rod might be banished from the school-room. 

29. Order in the buildings and on the grounds. — 

As the teacher is required to maintain good order in the 
school room, so the superintendent or principal must secure 
the orderly movements of the pupils throughout the building 
and on the grounds ; and the general appearance of a school 
while pupils are entering or leaving a house is a very fair in- 
dication of the managing ability of the responsible head. If 



6o SCHOOL SUPER VISIOX. 

the stairways are broad and straight, there need be no serious 
difficulty in maintaining good order; but if, as is too often 
the case, they are narrow and crooked, the difficulties are 
greatly increased. Halls and stairways may be so con- 
structed that pupils can be seen by their teachers during 
almost the entire march up and down; but it is often the 
case that they are out of sight after the first few steps; and 
under such circumstances, means must be taken to secure a 
strict oversight of the halls by the teachers in general. 

An observance of the following rules will contribute very 
largely to the maintenance of good order in passing to and 
from the rooms : 

(i) Definite times of dismission should be arranged, so 
that the several schools may not interfere with one another 
while going out. Thus, the schools on the first floor should 
be dismissed first, and their relative times of dismission should 
be so arranged that all interference may be avoided. 

(2) If there are stairways both in front and in rear, certain 
schools should invariably have their exit by the first and the 
others as invariably by the second. 

(3) If the stairways are wide, boys should invariably pass 
down by one railing and girls by the other; but if they 
are narrow, the boys should pass down first and then 
the girls. 

(4) Preparatory to passing down, pupils should be ar- 
ranged in the halls in single file, and at a given signal the 
column should move. 

(5) Pupils should invariably walk while moving up and 
down or through the halls, and all talking and whispering 
should be avoided. 

(6) When pupils enter the building, they should follow 
the same route as in going down, and should proceed di- 
rectly to their rooms. 



RECESSES. 6 1 

(7) When pupils pass from the building, they should leave 
the premises at once ; they should not be allowed to wait on 
the steps or at the gates. 

30. Recesses. — In crowded city schools, where play- 
grounds are limited to a few rods of bare earth, many evils 
are connected with the usual forenoon and afternoon recesses. 
In general, the promiscuous mingling of such large numbers 
of children of both sexes is liable to the gravest objections. 
The sport is violent and boisterous, involving frequent quar- 
rels, and entailing disorder of every variety and degree. 
That which takes place is not healthful recreation ; and the 
presence of so much that is rough and uncouth has a most 
unfavorable influence on morals and manners. We have not 
to do with quiet recreations on ample grass-plots, which 
children in isolated schools may enjoy, but with the pell- 
mell and hurly-burly which are unavoidable when hundreds 
of pupils are thrown together in the smaller yards connected 
with city schools. In such cases I believe the usual recesses 
are prolific sources of evil, and that their direct tendency is 
to vitiate our public school system. 

Some who have felt the magnitude of this evil have made 
trial of a plan which is free from many of the objections 
which have been mentioned. It is still an experiment, and 
must submit to the ordeal of experience, which is the final 
rest of all our methods. It is an innovation on the estab- 
lished order of things, and, as such, will be charged with 
evils which do not belong to it. Doubtless it will be found 
objectionable in some points ; but if it is found to reduce the 
acknowledged evils of the present system to their minimum, 
without entailing others of grave character, it is worthy of a 
careful trial. This plan is as follows : the sessions open at 
9 a. m. and at 1-30 p. m., respectively, and close at 11 a. 
m. and at 3 p. m. for the lower grades, and thirty minutes 



02 SCHOOL SUPER VIS/O iY. 

later for the higher grades. The usual recesses are abolished. 
Pupils are excused from the room, one or two at a time, 
while classes are changing, on condition of remaining for a 
stated time after the close of the session. Pupils whose state 
of health demands a freedom from ordinary restraint are ex- 
cused without exacting a penalty. This exception is made 
only when teachers have positive assurance that physical 
weakness requires it. The check placed on leave of absence 
should be just sufficient to prevent fictitious excuses. 

With judicious teachers who are good disciplinarians, this 
plan is not subject to any grave objections. It may be urged, 
at first sight, that by this plan children are kept in close con- 
finement too long; but when it is recollected that pupils are 
alternately reciting and studying, and consequently in motion 
to a considerable extent, and that proper precaution will 
secure a frequent change of air, it will appear that this ob- 
jection is imaginary rather than real. Finally, it may be 
remarked that, after trying this system for several years, and 
being ready to abandon it at any moment should it prove 
decidedly objectionable, I have every reason to believe that 
it is an improvement on the system which has been conse- 
crated by immemorial use. 

31. Text-books. — Next to the teacher, the text-book 
stands in closest relation to the prosperity of a school. As 
a summary of facts and principles skillfully classified and fit 
to be committed to memory, and thus to transmit the ac- 
quired knowledge of one generation to the next, its impor- 
tance in the work of instruction tan not be overestimated. 
The text-book is to the school what machinery is to a com- 
plex industrial process. In each case the quality of the work 
done depends very largely on the perfection of the tools 
which are employed. 

Changes in school-books are often the occasion of disturb- 



TEXT-BOOKS. 63 

ance, and it is of great importance to settle on some princi- 
ples which shall be observed in their introduction. 

Clearly, the superintendent has no right whatever to in- 
troduce a text-book on his own authority; but it is equally 
true that in a matter of this nature his judgment and wishes 
should be consulted. No one is in so good a position to 
judge of the fitness of a text-book as the superintendent. 
Familiar with the general scheme of instruction, and know- 
ing the requirements of the several grades, he should be able 
to form a trustworthy judgment as to the quality and the 
quantity of matter needed in each department of the school. 
Competence in this direction is, indeed, a professional duty, 
just as it is a professional duty for a surgeon to select the 
instruments which are needed in his practice. But as the 
absolute quality of text-books is not the only question at 
stake, as there may be circumstances which would render 
the adoption of even an improved book inopportune, and 
as the Board is best able to judge of these incidental ele- 
ments, it is plain that the Board must be the final judge in 
the case, and should, if thought necessary, set aside an 
opinion based on intrinsic merit. 

Changes in text-books are sometimes made without due 
consideration. Books in use are sometimes thrown out 
without sufficient cause, and new ones are introduced with- 
out particular reference to fitness. It should be a fixed 
principle with the Board to consider such subjects with de- 
liberation and make only such changes as are demanded to 
promote the best interests of the schools. 

The prosperity of American schools is due in great meas- 
ure to the enterprise and liberality of American publishers, 
who have fostered and almost created the authorship of 
text-books which are a credit to our age and country; for 
it is a fact beyond dispute that the American school-book 



64 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

has no superior. No class of books is subject to such 
rigorous and decisive criticism as this; and no other branch 
of trade responds so promptly to the interests and wants 
of the public. Competition drives poor books from the 
market. 

While a conservative policy is the one to be generally 
pursued, there are occasions when a change in text-books 
may be made with propriety. Changes are justifiable on 
the following grounds: 

(i) When the new book is manifestly superior to the old 
in the quality of its matter and in systematic arrangement. 

(2) When a book in use does not represent the actual 
state of the science, by reason of new and important dis- 
coveries made since its publication. 

(3) When the successful working of the graded course 
of instruction requires an increase or a diminution in the 
quantity of matter. 

With reference to these items it is to be remarked that 
there is a real difference in the quality of books. It is not 
true, as some pretend, that all recent books on a specified 
subject are equally meritorious, and may therefore be used 
with equal advantage. There are the same differences in 
text-books as in other literary productions; and their use 
will meet with corresponding success. Some books are in- 
trinsically excellent, and others intrinsically bad; and be- 
tween these extremes there are all shades of quality. It is 
sometimes said, in reply to this, that a good teacher should 
be able to give instruction from any text-book, or even with- 
out one. This is in a measure true; but as it is a fact that 
pupils are required to derive the greater part of their infor- 
mation from books, it is a matter of the highest importance 
that they be properly written. 

Again, a book may be unfit for use because it has become 



CHANGE OF TEXT-BOOKS. 65 

antiquated. This may happen in the case of the sciences 
which are growing rapidly, such as Physiology, Geography, 
Geology, and Chemistry. A text-book on either of these 
sciences may represent the existing state of knowledge to- 
day, but the discoveries of another year may make them 
more or less obsolete. The boundaries of human knowledge 
are ever enlarging, and new facts may give a new interpre- 
tation to well-known phenomena. Changes of this nature 
should be incorporated into our educational literature in 
order that the schools may fulfill their legitimate purpose. 
We are quick to change the style of our dress on the ap- 
pearance of a mere change in the mode; yet we feel impelled 
to say harsh things when asked to substitute a modern text- 
book for one which is antiquated, and is therefore an in- 
cumbrance. 

Finally, the exigencies of a graded course of instruction 
may require the substitution of one book for another. This 
may happen when a change in the grading has been made, 
or when the natural working of the system has shown that 
a book is inadequate to the demands made on it. Instances 
have occurred in which a course of instruction has been 
drawn up with a more direct reference to series of Geog- 
raphies, Arithmetics, and Grammars, which must needs be 
used, than to the probable duration of the child's school-life. 
In such cases, when the course of instruction has been re- 
duced to reasonable limits, a corresponding change in text- 
books is required. 

When, for valid reasons, a change in text-books has been 
ordered, it is frequently most expedient to replace the old 
ones by a process of gradual substitution. When beginning 
classes are formed, pupils should be instructed to buy the 
new book instead of the old one. In this way most of the 
objections to a change in books may be avoided, 
s. S.-6. 



66 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

If books are introduced, it should be through the regu« 
lar channels of trade. Neither superintendent nor teachers 
should, under any ordinary circumstances, supply pupils 
with any merchandise used in school. Booksellers some- 
times suffer loss from unsalable stock, left on their hands 
by a change in text-books, and they are at all times entitled 
to whatever profits arise from this branch of trade. Even 
when school authorities sell books to pupils without hope of 
gain, they are liable to unjust suspicion. 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE SUPERINTENDENT'S POWERS DEFINED AND SOME 

OF HIS GENERAL DUTIES DISCUSSED 

(concluded). 



<6fl 



SUMMARY. 

The relation of the superintendent to subordinate teachers. The 
independence of teachers. Form of superintendent's record. The 
assistance which should be rendered to teachers. The dismission 
of teachers. The granting of testimonials. The considerate treat- 
ment of teachers. Teachers 5 meetings. To what extent a teacher's 
acts should be sanctioned. 



(68) 



THE SUPERINTENDENT'S POWERS AND DUTIES 

(concluded). 

32. The relation of the superintendent to sub- 
ordinate teachers. — As already indicated, there must be 
some definite relation between the responsible head of a 
school and his subordinates. Unity and harmony can be 
maintained only by carrying into effect the general plans 
and necessary orders which proceed from a recognized au- 
thority. In the absence of some well defined motives for 
conforming to the prescribed order of things, some degree 
of insubordination is likely to occur. A school in which 
factions exist can be saved from ruin only by the prompt 
exercise of authority; and unless there is a well-grounded 
feeling that the positions which teachers hold depend some- 
what on the will of the person in charge, there will not be 
a hearty cooperation and a cheerful compliance with what 
is required. It is, perhaps, to be regretted that such mo- 
tives as these should be necessary; but in this case, as in 
all of a like nature, things must be considered as they are, 
and not merely as they ought to be. Whether teachers 
shall be employed or not should depend, to a considerable 
extent, on the superintendent's opinion of their fidelity to 
duty, and the real success which they have accomplished. 
Were positions independent of desert, those who hold them 
would feel but little zeal in their allotted work. 

(69) 



70 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

It is not to be inferred from this that differences in 
opinion are not to be tolerated. Obsequiousness is more 
to be suspected than firmness in holding to one's opinions. 
It is not necessary that teachers echo all the opinions of 
their superior. It is rather an evidence of extreme weak- 
ness. Independent thought is compatible with the most 
hearty loyalty, and is a trait of character to be respected 
and cherished. Where there is healthy intellectual activity, 
there will be differences of opinion; but these need not in- 
terfere with the duty of obedience. Some minds take great 
delight in mere uniformities. It might be a beautiful uni- 
formity if all who live in the same longitude were to rise 
at the same moment each morning; but it would be a very 
absurd thing nevertheless. 

33. The independence of teachers. — To what extent 
should the superintendent interfere with teachers in their 
work? The general principle is easily stated. Teachers are 
to be held responsible for the quality of their instruction 
and discipline, and should be allowed to follow their own 
methods so far as is consistent with general requirements. 
The seating of pupils, their manner of coming to the place 
of recitation ; special means of securing order in the room, 
and other items of similar character should be entrusted to 
the teacher's judgment. Within her room, the teacher should 
be mistress of the situation; and only under extraordinary 
circumstances has the superintendent a right to make direct 
interference. The individual rights of the teacher should 
be as clearly recognized as those of the superintendent or 
of the Board. Good teachers will do more work, and of 
better quality, if confidence is reposed in their judgment 
and discretion. The superintendent is in duty bound to 
proffer suggestions and advice when they are known to be 
needed; but in many cases it is best to go no further. 



INDEPENDENCE OF TEACHERS. 7 1 

Where there is no violation of established principles, it is 
well to allow considerable latitude of judgment, and to wait 
for results before making direct interference. Teachers are 
not to be transformed into mere automata, but are to be 
credited with good intentions, and helped to become efficient 
co-laborers, while retaining all proper freedom of thought 
and action. Perpetual interference in minor matters, which 
will usually work their own cure, is a capital fault in school 
management. A school should be a republic, not a despot- 
ism; an organic whole, animated by self-active centers, not 
a dead machine, kept in motion by external force. Hold 
teachers responsible for results, aid them by suggestion and 
advice, and allow them all possible freedom in developing 
their plans and methods. 

The same principle should be observed in assisting teachers 
as in assisting pupils. Indirect help is best. They are most 
truly aided who are put in the way of aiding themselves. In 
the case of teachers, this principle is of peculiar importance. 
A teacher's methods should have a large element of person- 
ality in them — they can not be copied bodily from others. 
The uniformities which are desirable are typical merely. 
There should be a general resemblance in methods for a 
special purpose; but it is not necessary, nor even desirable, 
that they be exact copies of one another. Growths which 
are in any sense vital, have an individual character; they 
are founded on a common type, but are distinguished by 
unimportant differences. In methods of teaching and dis- 
cipline, typical uniformities alone are desirable. 

34. Form of superintendent's record. — A superin- 
tendent will form a just estimate of a teacher's ability by 
directing his attention systematically to a few points of chief 
importance. Ability to keep order, power of holding atten- 
tion, knowledge of the subject, skill in imparting instruction, 



72 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

are qualifications which should enter as elements into the 
superintendent's judgment of a teacher's worth. It is a 
good plan to make a record of each teacher's ability in 
these particulars. The opposite blank is presented as a 
specimen page of a Superintendent's Register, to be 
used for the purpose above mentioned. After a succession 
of visits, an average of all the marks will represent the 
superintendent's estimate of each teacher's ability. This 
plan has evident advantages, (i) It gives system and exact- 
ness to the work of supervision. A school is visited with 
the express purpose of testing the teacher's efficiency in cer- 
tain material points. (2) In case teachers know what excel- 
lencies are expected, or from what data an estimate of their 
success will be formed, they, too, will have a definite pur- 
pose in the performance of their work. (3) Whenever it is 
necessary to inform the Board of a teacher's qualifications, 
a trustworthy statement can be made. 

35. The assistance -which should be rendered to 
teachers. — Whenever it is seen that a teacher is making a 
radical mistake which will compromise her success, a full 
and frank statement of the fact is required, and such helps 
should be given as the case seems to demand. No false deli- 
cacy should tempt one to withhold a candid opinion as to 
the nature and consequences of glaring faults. Otherwise, 
when disaster has come, and the teacher has forfeited hei 
place, there is just ground for charging the superintendent 
with neglect of duty; for it is plain that skillful supervision 
ought to diminish the chances of failure. The superintendent 
ought to be a teacher of teachers, competent to detect the 
probable causes of failure, and able to suggest means which 
may avert disaster. This course is of special importance in 
the case of inexperienced teachers, whom judicious criticism 
and skillful assistance may save from undeserved failure- 



No. II. 



SUPERINTENDENT'S REGISTER. 



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74 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

In too many instances teachers are allowed to fail. The 
danger is seen, but no warning is given, no advice prof- 
fered; when, suddenly, the teacher is overwhelmed with 
failure, and can not resist the feeling that she has been 
unfaithfully treated. Great good often comes from allowing 
teachers to exchange visits. In this way individual excel- 
lencies become common property, and faults, seen in others, 
become noticeable and are shunned. 

36. The dismission of teachers. — But after all the 
helps which a wise supervision can render, teachers may 
fail to do satisfactory work; and it is often a question of 
extreme delicacy and difficulty to decide when a teacher 
should be displaced. On one side are the teacher's inter- 
ests, her reputation, the mortification of failure; and, on 
the other, the interests of the school. From similarity of 
position, the sympathies of the superintendent will naturally 
incline to the side of the teacher ; while, as a public servant, 
obliged by the very nature of his office to protect the rights 
of the people as represented in their children, he can not 
allow a school to suffer from the incompetence of its 
teachers. It is necessary to recollect that a school is not 
a benevolent institution for giving aid to needy teachers. 
The needs of the school must be considered first; and if 
it appears that it is retrograding in point of discipline or 
scholarship, there should be no hesitation in recommending 
a change. In this situation of affairs, the danger seldom 
lies in the direction of hasty action, but rather in that of 
putting off the evil day, hoping for amendment and a tri- 
umph over difficulties, particularly in the case of a teacher 
tvho is putting forth every effort to succeed. 

When the Board has decided that dismission is necessary, 
this duty, though an unpleasant one, should be performed 
in an honorable manner. The teacher should be told 



THE GRANTING OF TESTIMONIALS. 75 

plainly, but kindly, the necessities of the case ; there 
should be no deception, no double-dealing. The instances 
are too frequent in which moral cowardice has added un- 
necessary pangs to misfortune. The notice of dismission, 
instead of being given at the earliest practicable day, has 
sometimes followed the teacher on her vacation visit to a 
distant home. 

37. The granting of testimonials. — When teachers 
have thus forfeited their places through incompetence, what 
are their rights as to testimonials and recommendations? 
There is a practice too general, and attended by many 
evil consequences, of granting even to grossly incompetent 
teachers flattering recommendations. The practical result 
of this has been to throw deserved and almost universal 
discredit on testimonials from school officers. It must be 
allowed that it is often very difficult to decide what equal 
and exact justice requires. Often there is the possibility, 
even the probability, that under different circumstances, 
under the stimulus of a new effort, a different result might 
be reached; and in such cases it seems unjust to stand 
in the way of an opportunity to vindicate one's self. The 
usual practice of school officers is either to grant a flatter- 
ing commendation, or to draw up a document in ambigu- 
ous terms, giving prominence to exceptional excellencies, 
and keeping silence as to well-known faults. There is but 
one general rule to be followed : either refuse to grant such 
papers or tell the whole truth. For the common good, 
something should be done to redeem testimonials from the 
almost universal contempt into which they have so justly 
fallen. 

380 The considerate treatment of teachers. — Every 

legitimate means should be used to render the situation of 
teachers agreeable and comfortable. At best, they are ex- 



76 SCHOOL SUPER VISION. 

posed to many annoyances incident to their calling, and it 
is cruel to add others which are avoidable. Teachers 
should not be treated as the mere hirelings oi a day, liable 
to be displaced without warning; but they should feel as- 
sured that their positions are safe as long as they render 
efficient service. Teachers who have earned a right to 
confidence should be employed at least by the year; they 
should be spared the anxieties and uncertainties which 
attend frequent reelections. When long service has given 
positive assurance of merit, why should it be thought nec- 
essary to limit the reengagement to a single term ? 

Teachers should be paid promptly at the close of each 
month. Their salaries are usually meager, but little more 
than sufficient to pay current expenses, and it is a cruelty 
scarcely pardonable to delay the payment oi what is needed 
for almost daily necessities. 

39. Teachers' Meetings. — The theory of school super- 
vision which this treatise is designed to illustrate requires 
the superintendent to work upon the school through the 
teachers. He is to prepare plans oi instruction and dis- 
cipline, which the teachers must carry into effect ; but the 
successful working out of such a scheme requires constant 
oversight and constant readjustments. Hence arises the 
necessity for conference, instruction in methods, and cor- 
rection oi errors. The teachers of a graded-school should 
be under continual normal instruction. At stated periods, 
meetings should be held for instruction in all departments 
of practical school work ; and to this there should be added, 
as occasion admits, instruction in the principles which un- 
derlie successful practice, to the end that teachers may 
become intelligent and independent co-laborers. (§ 9.) 

Teachers' Meetings are the only known means oi giving 
harmony and proper efficiency to a system oi instruction. 



TEACHERS' MEETINGS. 77 

That unity of purpose and of method, which is indispen- 
sable to success, can not be communicated in any other 
manner; nor is there any other way of giving due promi- 
nence to that esprit de corps which should animate a body 
of teachers. 

The frequency of these meetings should be regulated by 
the circumstances of the school. Under a new administra- 
tion there will be need to call teachers together frequently, 
especially if affairs are to take a new direction, — if a 
new policy is to be inaugurated; and if there are many 
changes in teachers, there is need of frequent conference 
for instruction and advice. Under such circumstances, two 
meetings each month are desirable. When a school has 
been brought into general conformity to a settled line of 
policy, and when there are only occasional breaks in the 
ranks of teachers, monthly meetings will suffice. And if, as 
is very proper, this meeting is made the occasion to pay 
the month's salary, teachers will attend cheerfully and 
promptly. Except in large cities, where teachers are scat- 
tered over a wide area, these meetings are most conveni- 
ently held on Fridays, at the close of the afternoon session. 

It is probable that the superintendent, in his round of 
visits, has noticed errors which are more or less common. 
These should be brought to the attention of the whole body 
of teachers ; the exact nature of the faults should be pointed 
out, and appropriate remedies suggested. This correction 
of errors will form a very important part of the business 
which may appropriately come before a teachers' meeting. 
It scarcely requires to be added that these criticisms should 
be impersonal, and should be made in the utmost kindness, 
and with the sole purpose of promoting the general good. 
Another very important order of business is instruction in 
methods of teaching and discipline. The superintendent, 



78 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

by virtue of his office, should be able to give professional 
instruction of this kind. He should take up one topic after 
another, in the order of its importance, and should discuss 
it philosophically; that is, disclose the principles which un- 
derlie the methods under consideration. If grammar is in- 
differently taught, this subject should be discussed in such 
a way as to make apparent the cause of the difficulty; and 
a system of instruction should be marked out, designed to 
inaugurate a better order of things. 

It will often be found useful to call special meetings of 
the teachers interested in the same topic. For example, 
if there is need of giving more attention to geography, 
the teachers of this subject should be called together for 
special instruction. If there is a weak point in any part 
of the system, it should be strengthened by a concentration 
of attention upon that definite object. A policy of this 
kind, patiently carried forward, will soon reinvigorate the 
whole system. 

40. To what extent a teacher's acts should be 

sanctioned. — With respect to discipline, it is important to 
know to what extent a superintendent is justifiable in sanc- 
tioning the measures which teachers may think best to em- 
ploy. On the one hand, individual teachers can not main- 
tain efficient discipline without the moral and sometimes 
the physical support of their superiors; and, on the other, 
no sane man is willing to pledge himself, in advance, to 
sanction all that inexperienced or injudicious teachers may 
occasionally do. 

When teachers have followed the plain line of duty, and 
particularly when they have carried out instructions, and 
have fallen into trouble in consequence, it is poltroonery to 
desert them in their extremity. Even when teachers have 
been somewhat injudicious under trying circumstances, when 



SANCTIONING TEACHERS' ACTS. 79 

there was no opportunity for deliberation, they should be 
supported so far as is consistent with truthfulness and honor, 
if it is evident that their general course has been directed 
by fidelity to duty. 

On the contrary, when teachers go counter to instructions,. 
or when they adopt methods of discipline which are open 
to grave objection, or inflict punishment which is grossly 
excessive, they should be allowed to suffer the natural con- 
sequences of their folly. In such cases, when parents re- 
monstrate, as they ought to do, the acts complained of 
should be disavowed, and all proper reparation made. 
While no general rule can be given which will anticipate 
specific cases, a correct sense of justice will usually dictate 
the course which should be followed. 



CHAPTER V. 

THE ART OF GRADING SCHOOLS. 



(?n 



SUMMARY. 

Graded-school defined. The advantages of graded-schools. Schools 
should conform to the needs and circumstances of communities. Ideal 
of a graded-school. Data to be used in grading. Limitations of data. 
Can country schools be graded? The grading of a small school illus- 
trated. The arrangement of text-book work. The arrangement of 
programmes. The development of a provisional classification. The 
successive transformations through which a graded-school may pass. 
Synopsis of a common school course of instruction. 



m 



THE ART OF GRADING SCHOOLS. 

41. Graded- School defined. — A school in which pupils 
are classified according to their attainments, and in which 
pupils of similar attainments are taught together, and thus 
pursue the successive portions of a systematic course of 
instruction, is a Graded-School. If the course covers a 
period of twelve years, each year's work may constitute 
a grade; and when pupils have completed a year's work 
in a satisfactory manner, they are promoted to the next 
higher grade. In other cases, the whole course of instruc- 
tion is divided into a smaller number of periods, each 
of which is called a grade or department. Thus the 
twelve years of school life may be distinguished into three 
periods as follows : A primary grade or department of four 
years, a grammar grade of four years, and a high school 
grade of four years. The essential idea is to subdivide the 
work of instruction into a series of ascending steps, each 
of which is preparatory to the next in succession. 

42. The advantages of graded-schools. — The ad- 
vantages of such a system are obvious. 

(1) It is an application to the work of instruction of the 

great law of the division of labor. By this means a teacher's 

time, talent, and attention are concentrated on a prescribed 

range of duties, which become easy by repetition, and hence 

(83) 



84 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

are likely to be performed in a thorough manner. Advan- 
tage is also taken of the fitness of teachers for special 
varieties of work. Some teachers are most skillful in teach- 
ing children, others in teaching adults; some who would 
succeed but indifferently in one grade, may be eminently 
successful in another? 

(2) Pupils who pursue their studies under such a system 
derive peculiar advantages from the thoroughness of their 
instruction, and the completeness of the course; for not 
only is a reasonable degree of proficiency in the studies of 
one grade necessary for promotion to a higher, but there is 
no hiatus in the course of instruction. 

The work of teaching thus follows the law which prevails 
in all well-regulated industries. This general movement is 
characteristic of a growing civilization, and it is as reason- 
able to cry out against the division of labor in general as 
against that special application of the law which has called 
into being the Graded-School. 

43. Schools should conform to the needs and cir- 
cumstances of communities. — Perhaps the most diffi- 
cult task in practical school work is to arrange a course of 
instruction which is best adapted to given circumstances. 
Two important considerations should not be overlooked : 

(1) Every graded system should be somewhat elastic — 
should afford opportunities for growth and for the readjust- 
ments which a gradual development of the system may 
require, or which the general educational current of the 
day may make necessary. The working, for several years, 
of a course which has been very nicely adjusted, will al- 
most unavoidably disclose the need of some modification; 
and the changes which are gradually taking place in public 
opinion on educational topics ought to have their effect on 
practical education, Organization should promote growth. 



COURSES OF STUDY. 85 

not arrest it. There should be enough elasticity in the 
structure to allow the organism to respond insensibly to the 
impulses of growth; there should not be that rigidity which 
checks expansion till the imprisoned forces assert their su- 
premacy with violence. 

(2) Graded systems of instruction should adapt themselves 
to the needs and circumstances of communities. The ideal 
element — the consideration of what ought to be, should en- 
ter into the structure of every system; but no less impera- 
tive is the need of keeping the mind intent on the actual 
state of the people whose interests are to* be promoted. For 
the schools belong to the people; and the opinions, interests, 
and, to some extent, even the whims of the people must be 
respected. It is not meant by this that the schools are to 
react to every suggestion, w r ise or foolish, friendly or sinister, 
which may come from without, for it is to shield them from 
such calamities that Boards of Trustees interfere between 
these organizations and the caprices of individual opinion; 
but it is meant that no institution which draws its support 
from the people at large can safely disregard the candid 
suggestions of public opinion. Now, it is conceivable that 
two towns of equal school population, but of different ma- 
terial resources, intellectual tastes, and degrees of culture, 
may require systems of public instruction which are some- 
what different; while it is plain that towns whose popula- 
tions differ considerably in size, require marked differences 
in courses of study. Here has been a fundamental and 
most mischievous error, especially in the organization of 
high schools. Small towns, with scant materials for a high 
school, frequently adopt courses of study which only the 
resources of the larger cities can carry into effect. For 
the sake of eclat, an expense is incurred wholly out of pro- 
portion to the interests involved. Two or three pupils in 



86 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

Latin, Greek, or Trigonometry sometimes monopolize time 
which should be given to larger classes in more practical 
studies. If the principal be a mathematician, he is in dan- 
ger of drawing up a course of mathematics, fit only for a 
college; and other tastes here find a field for their display. 
He who thus allows individual preferences to govern him, 
is incapable of arranging a course of study for the average 
pupil. 

44. Ideal of a graded-school. — Preparatory to the ob- 
ject we have in view, it is necessary to form a clear notion 
of the requirements* of a perfectly graded school. The es- 
sential idea, as the term grade itself suggests, is that of 
an orderly succession of ascending steps, each of which is 
a necessary preparation for the one which follows. Each 
of these steps consists in a competent knowledge of three 
or four subjects of instruction; and when a pupil has passed 
a satisfactory examination in each of the topics which con- 
stitute one grade, he is promoted to the next higher grade, 
where he will continue the studies of the lower grade, or 
will take others which follow in natural order. Let the 
reader imagine a large school-room, containing three success- 
ive series of ascending steps, representing the three grades 
into which the course of instruction is divided. These are 
named the primary grade, the grammar grade, and the high 
school grade. The primary and grammar grades constitute 
what is called the common school course; and the high 
school grade, the secondary course. Each grade is sub- 
divided into four shorter steps, each of which occupies one 
year of study. 

Let us suppose that the pupils in this school have been 
pursuing their studies for one year, and that the pupils 
seated in each subdivision are to take one step in advance 
The highest class in the high school will pass out of the 



GRADING SCHOOLS. 87 

room, and a new class will enter from without and take 
the places vacated by the lowest class in the primary grade. 
If, for any reason, certain pupils have not done the work 
prescribed for them, they will remain behind and mingle 
with the class which has come forward. And if, during the 
year, a pupil has shown himself able to do considerably 
more work than his classmates, he is taken from his class 
and placed with the one next in advance. On the contrary, 
if a pupil, through incompetence or indolence, falls behind 
his classmates, he is taken down to the next lower class. 

On the supposition that this entire school is in charge of 
one teacher, what amount of work will he have on hand? 
Each subdivision is separated from the next by one year's 
work. Consequently, each of the twelve subdivisions will 
furnish four distinct sets of classes, making, in all, forty- 
eight recitations a day. On the average, this will allow 
about eight minutes to every class. Of course such a scheme 
is impracticable. If one teacher should take two of these 
grades in charge, he would still have thirty-two classes, and 
could give to each but about ten minutes. This is evidently 
impracticable. These calculations are based on the suppo- 
sition that a pupil has but four studies, and has but one 
recitation per day in each; and that six hours a day are 
devoted exclusively to recitation. Let us now imagine each 
of these grades as occupying a room by itself, in charge 
of one teacher. What attention can be devoted to each 
recitation ? 

The most favorable circumstances will furnish the follow- 
ing data: (1) Five and a half hours a day devoted to 
class-work. (2) In the primary grade, each pupil will have 
five recitations; in the grammar grade, four; and in the high 
school, three. The following table will exhibit the essential 
facts in each case: 



SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 



Grade. 


No. of Recitations 
to each Pupil. 


Whole No. of 
Classes. 


Length of 
Recitations. 


Primary. 


5 


20 


1 6 m. 


Grammar. 


4 


16 


20 m. 


High School. 


3 


12 


27 m. 



45. Data to be used in grading. — The above calcula- 
tion will serve to illustrate some of the limitations which are 
to be taken into account in practical grading. Some of 
the data which must be employed in arranging a scheme of 
graded instruction are, for all practical purposes, fixed quan- 
tities; others are variable, and, in calculating results, values 
must be assigned them. Thus it is evident that in cases 
where but one teacher can be employed the time which he 
can devote to class instruction is a fixed quantity, not abso- 
lutely the same in all cases, but determinable in each special 
case by taking from the entire session the time needed for 
opening exercises, roll-call, and recesses. So also the aver- 
age time which shall be given to each recitation ought to be 
fixed within very narrow limits. Thus, in primary schools, 15 
minutes, on the average, should be the minimum; in gram- 
mar schools it should not be less than 25 minutes; and in 
high schools not less than 40 minutes. To make a con- 
venient use of these data, let us employ the following 
notation : 



T— The whole time devoted to recitations by one teacher. 
/ = The average length of each recitation. 
JV— The whole number of recitations. 
n = The average number of recitations to each pupil. 
y=The years in the course. 



GRADING SCHOOLS. 89 

These quantities will give rise to the following equation: 

(1) T=NXt=(nXY)t 

As just stated, T and t are virtually fixed quantities, so 
that n may be made determinate by assigning a value to Y; 
and Y determinate by assigning a value to n. That is, if 
we assume that there must be a certain number of years 
in the course, the average number of recitations which each 
pupil may have is limited; and, if we start with the last 
fact, we are compelled to fix on a definite number of years 
which the course shall occupy. To illustrate the application 
of these principles to the grading of primary schools, let us 
make use of two derived equations as follows : 

T T 

<*) * = W7' (3) Y= 



Yx t vo/ 11 X t 

Here T== 5^; t — \. Now, if we are determined to have 
four years in the course, the average number of recitations 
which each pupil may have will be found from the second 
equation as follows : 

n ~ 4X}" 52 ' 

If, on the other hand, we assume that each pupil may 
have six recitations, the number of years in the course will 
be determined from the third equation as follows : 

v 5~2 .,2 

1 — /: w i — ^3" 



As the results in such calculations must necessarily be 
whole numbers, some slight modification must be made in 
the value of /. If we assign to Y, in the last example, the 
value of 4, the value of t will be deduced as follows : 

. . 5A hrs. . , 

t= -~ =14 minutes nearly. 

6X4 

s. s.-s. 



90 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

46. Limitations of data. — The calculations which have 
thus far been made relate to the classification of a single 
school, in charge of one teacher, with a view to determine, 
either how many years there shall be in the course, or how 
many recitations each pupil may have. The limitations are 
the number of teachers, the time which can be devoted to 
recitation, and the average length of each recitation. Given 
these limitations, the purpose has been to show the results 
which necessarily follow from them. It is necessary to keep 
in mind the important fact that, in grading schools, we must 
be governed by the resources at our command. Many 
things are desirable which are not practicable, and we must 
often be content to make a garment from a scant pattern. 

It will be observed that the limitations which have been 
placed upon our calculations can ultimately be resolved in- 
to the lack of teachers. For, with two teachers, the time 
devoted to recitations is doubled, and consequently we may 
either increase the number of years in the course, or the 
number of studies allowed to each pupil. And again, this 
limited teaching force is due either to a small number of 
pupils, or to a lack of resources. In a small school of 
twenty-five pupils there may be in reality eight grades, re- 
quiring at least two teachers, if a strict classification is made; 
but it is quite sure that all the work must be done by one 
teacher. In such a case the practical question is, how can 
the teacher's time be employed to the greatest advantage ? 

47. Can country schools be graded? — With a fair 
understanding of the principles which have been illustrated, 
we are now prepared to discuss a question which has 
received considerable attention, — can country schools be 
graded? The school to which reference is made consists 
of from twenty to forty pupils, varying in age from six to 
fourteen years, taught by one teacher. 



GRADING CO UNTR Y SCHO OLS. 9 1 

Let us assume the following data: 

T= 6. t = \. n = $. 
T 6 



Now (3) Y= 



Xt " 5X| 



This will give a course of instruction covering five years, 
adapted to pupils from six to eleven years of age. This 
course will take a pupil through the Fourth Reader, and 
half-way through the Intermediate Geography and Arith- 
metic. Probably there are many country schools composed 
of younger children, where such a range of studies will 
suffice. If so, the school can be graded; but whether the 
grading can be sustained, will depend on the character of 
the attendance and on the skill possessed by the successive 
teachers. The two things which make it very difficult, if 
not impossible, to sustain a graded course of instruction in 
such schools are great irregularity of attendance, and the 
frequent change of teachers, whereby it is almost impossible 
to follow any settled line of policy. The fact that many 
pupils attend school but a part of the year, during the 
winter, perhaps, will make it almost impossible to avoid 
forming classes not provided for in the graded course ; while 
a frequent change in teachers will, in many cases, defeat 
the wisest plans. There would be much more hope of in- 
troducing a classification into country schools, if teachers 
in general understood the principles which must be observed 
in the formation and preservation of a graded course of 
study. A fair degree of professional skill generally dissemi- 
nated among teachers, and the desire, on the part of 
Boards of Trustees, to employ the best obtainable talent, 
can alone carry into effect that settled line of policy which 
is absolutely required in order to sustain a systematic 
course of instruction. 



92 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

Suppose the grading of a larger school, composed of 
older pupils, is in question, and that the following data are 
assumed : 

T=6. / = £. Y=$. 

T 6 



In this case, each pupil will be limited to three recitations 
each day; and the course will extend from the sixth to the 
fourteenth year of his age. It is not to be doubted that an 
orderly arrangement of studies which permits but this num- 
ber of recitations is much preferable to that confusion which 
reigns in most schools of this description. While in this, 
and in similar cases, a system of grading is theoretically 
possible, there will be found, as in the first ease, disturbing 
causes which may defeat the plan. I have no doubt that 
country schools may be graded to the immense advantage 
of their pupils; but whether the graded system can be sus- 
tained, will depend very largely on the skill of those who 
have them in charge. 

48. The grading of a small school. — The art of 

grading will now be discussed in its application to small 
village schools, which may be supposed to contain at least 
the germ of a rational classification. It is obvious that most 
of the difficulties which are encountered in country schools 
will meet us in village schools in charge o\ a single teacher, 
so that such cases do not require further attention. Let us, 
therefore, consider the case of a village school of eighty pu- 
pils, in charge of two teachers. We will assume that the 
course of instruction is to cover a period of eight years, 
extending from the sixth to the fourteenth year. We have, 
then, provision for a primary grade and a grammar grade, 
of four years each. To assign a distinct grade to each 



ARRANGEMENT OF TEXT-BOOK WORK. 93 

teacher, would be to make an unequal distribution of pupils; 
but as the recitations must be longer in the grammar grade, 
this arrangement will probably make a very fair distribution 
of labor. 

Preparatory to arranging a course of instruction, and a 
programme of exercises, the number of studies which is 
permissible in each grade must be determined. Let us fix 
the average time of recitation at fifteen and twenty minutes, 
respectively. Then, for the primary grade, 

T 6 



"^X/ _ 4Xi 
and for the grammar grade, 



6; 



_ T _ 6 j 

"-FX/"4X1 _% - 

The correction to be made for the length of recitations 
in the second case is computed as follows: 

. T 6hrs. . 

t = -jy— — = ■ — — — ■ = 18 minutes. 
YXn 4X5 

49. The arrangement of text-book work. — The 
next step in order, is to arrange in tabulated form the text- 
book work which is sufficient for each year of the course. 
It may be remarked here that there is considerable diversity 
of practice with reference to the point in the course at which 
certain studies should be taken up, for example, geography 
and grammar. At present, the tendency is to postpone these 
topics to a later period, devoting the earlier part of the 
course to a thorough training in reading, writing, and cal- 
culating. The art of arts is reading; and to the acquisition 
of this art the primary grade should be almost exclusively 
devoted. By reading is meant the art of interpreting written 
language, and not the art of giving vocalized expression t9 



94 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

thought — elocution. The second art has a value, but is not 
comparable with the first in point of direct utility. Next 
in importance to reading are calculation and writing. These 
three arts should monopolize the time and effort of teacher 
and pupil during the first four years of school life. 

The early introduction of geography and grammar may 
have been due to the number of books in a series. It may 
have been thought that the three grammars and the three 
or four geographies were made to be used; and if so, there 
was need to begin their study at an early period of life. 
Now, however, the tendency is to diminish the number of 
books in a series, and at the same time to reduce the quan- 
tity of matter which they contain. Simplification is the aim 
of text-book authors, and the schools are beginning to sim- 
plify their courses of study. By reason of the mass of matter 
which pupils have been forced to learn, the memory has 
been taxed at the expense of the reason; and in the end, 
the memory has suffered, for the memorizing of facts merely 
to be repeated is a dissipation which speedily weakens the 
power of memory. 

There is a striking analogy between the assimilation of 
food and the assimilation of knowledge. Without noting 
the most instructive of these analogies, it is sufficient, in 
this place, to remark that both processes require a state of 
repose in order that the elements which have been appropri- 
ated may be incorporated — those into organs and tissues, 
these into the complex products of reflection. 

The amount of text-book work which can be accom- 
plished in each year of the course has been determined, 
within certain limits, by experience. It is manifestly im- 
possible to tell in advance the amount of matter which is 
required; but with experience come needed readjustments 
of the course; and, finally, these corrections have led to a 



ARRANGEMENT OF TEXT- BOOK WORK. 95 

very general uniformity. There is presented on page 96 a 
synopsis of a course of instruction suitable for such a school 
as we have had under consideration. Each column will 
indicate the work designed for the corresponding year. 
The figure placed opposite each text-book indicates the 
point at which a corresponding study begins and ends. 
Thus the Primary Geography is to be taken up at the be- 
ginning of the third year, primary grade, and completed 
during the fourth year. This synopsis may be changed 
into a working plan by dividing each column into three 
parts, corresponding to the number of school terms, and 
placing figures to denote the page of each book which 
must be reached at the end of each term. This form will 
be given further on [page 105]. 

It is to be remarked, with reference to this synopsis, 
that in the supposed case only an imperfect grading is 
possible. • In fact, this is but one remove from an unclass- 
ified school; and, speaking physiologically, the type of or- 
ganization is low, because the degree of differentiation is 
slight. It is no more possible to introduce a high organi- 
zation into such a school than into a manufactory of guns 
where only two workmen are employed. 

In a highly classified school, eight teachers would be 
differently employed in doing the work which must be done 
by two in the case supposed. Is it worth while to grade 
a school under such circumstances? This is to ask whether 
an imperfect classification is better than none. Even in 
case there is no probability that the school* will grow, it is 
well to have at least a rude organization which shall give 
to it some consistency and shape; while, if there is steady 
growth in numbers, this imperfect organization is easily de- 
veloped into others which are successively higher. This 
statement will be illustrated further on. 



9 6 



SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 



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PROVISIONAL CLASSIFICATION. 97 

50. The arrangement of programmes. — The third 
and last step is to prepare a programme of exercises for 
each grade. At best, the teachers of such a school will be 
over-crowded with work; but on this account there is the 
more need that their work should be systematic. Time 
which is to be spent in so many duties must be rigorously 
subdivided; otherwise, one task will encroach on another, 
and entail a general confusion. The data for arranging the 
programmes (pp. 98, 99) are the calculations previously given 
(§ 48), and the synopsis of studies. It will be observed that 
by combining two classes in writing and spelling, there is 
room on each programme for opening exercises and roll call, 
while there are twenty-two recitations in the first case and 
twenty in the second. Other modifications of this general 
plan may be made at discretion. In practice, the spaces 
not filled may be made to include topics which are to be 
studied in a fixed order. These have been omitted in order 
to avoid any danger of confusion. 

51. The development of a provisional classifica- 
tion. — Whenever the growth of a school requires the em- 
ployment of an additional teacher, the original organization 
should be so modified as to allow a sharper classification of 
pupils. This should be the guiding principle in making the 
successive modifications of the system which are required by 
gradual additions to the enrollment. 

School statistics, from whatever source, exhibit one uni- 
versal law, — that attendance steadily diminishes as we pass 
from the lower grades to the higher. This general law affords 
us only a qualitative prevision. With reference to any given 
school, we can predict with certainty that the high school 
enrollment is only a small percentage of the aggregate enroll- 
ment; though, given the aggregate enrollment, we are unable 
to state, except within wide limits, the number of pupils who 

S. S.-Q. 



9 8 



SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 



PROGRAMME OF RECITATIONS FOR THE PRIMARY 
GP.ADE OF AN IMPERFECTLY GRADED SCHOOL. 



9 tO Q-ip. OPENING EXERCISES. 




D CLASS. 
FIRST YEAR. 


C CLASS. 
SECOND YEAR. 


B CLASS. 
THIRD YEAR. 


A CLASS 
FOURTH YEAR. 


9-10 to 9-25. 


Reading. 








9-25 to 9-40. 




Reading. 






9-40 to 9-55. 






Reading. 




9-55 to IO-IO. 








Reading. 


10-10 to 10-25. 


Oral Instruction. 








10-25 to 10-40. 




Arithmetic. 


Recess. 


Recess. 


10-40 to 10-55. 


Recess. 


Recess. 


Writing. 


Writing. 


10-55 to ii-io. 


Reading. 








11-10 to n-25. 


(Dismissed.) 


Reading. 






11-25 to 11-40. 




(Dismissed.) 


Arithmetic. 




11-40 to H-55- 








Arithmetic. 


11-55 to 12. 




Roll Call. 


Roll Call. 




12 to I. 




Intermission. 


Intermission. 




1 to 1-15. 


Reading, 








1-15 to 1-30. 




Reading. 






1-30 to 1-45. 






Reading. 




1-45 to 2. 








Reading. 


2 to 2-15. 


Oral Instruction. 








2-15 to 2-30. 




Arithmetic. 


Recess. 


Recess. 


2-30 to 2-45. 


Recess. 


Recess. 


Geography. 




2-45 to 3. 








Geography. 


3 to 3-15. 


Reading. 








3-15 to 3-30. 


(Dismissed.) 


Reading. 






3-30 to 3-45. 




(Dismissed.) 


Spelling. 


Spelling. 


3-45 to 4. 


Roll Call. 


Roll Call. 


Roll Call. 


Roll Call. 



PROGRAMME OF RECITATIONS. 



99 



PROGRAMME OF RECITATIONS FOR THE GRAMMAR 
GRADE OF AN IMPERFECTLY GRADED SCHOOL. 



9 to 9-10. 


OPENING EXERCISES. 






D CLASS. 
FIRST YEAR. 


C CLASS. 
SECOND YEAR. 


B CLASS. 
THIRD YEAR. 


A CLASS. 
FOURTH YEAR. 


9-10 to 9-28. 


Reading. 








9-28 to 9-46. 




Reading. 






9-46 to 10-4. 






Arithmetic. 




10-4 to 10-22. 


Recess. 


Recess. 




Arithmetic. 


10-22 to 10-40. 


Arithmetic. 








10-40 to 10-58. 




Arithmetic. 


Recess. 


Recess. 


10-58 to II-IO. 






Writing. 


Writing. 


11-10 to 11-25. 


Writing. 


Writing. 






11-25 to 11-43. 






Geography. 




11-43 to I2 - 








History. 


12 tO I. 


Intermission. 


Intermission. 


Intermission. 


Intermission. 


1 to 1-18. 


Reading. 








1-18 to 1-36. 




Grammar. 






1-36 to 1-54. 






Grammar. 




1-54 to 2-12. 








Grammar. 


2-12 tO 2-3O. 


Geography. 








2-30 to 2-48. 




Geography. 


Recess. 


Recess. 


2-48 to 3-6. 


Recess. 


Recess. 


Reading. 




3-6 to 3-24. 








Reading. 


3-24 to 3-42. 


Spelling. 


Spelling. 






3-42 to 4. 






Spelling. 


Spelling. 


4 to 4-5. 


Roll Call. 


Roll Call. 


Roll Call. 


Roll Call. 

































LofC. 



ioo SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

are enrolled in the high school. When this law has been 
established for a particular school, however, it is in most 
cases subject to but slight variations, and may lead us to 
quantitative results within quite narrow limits. 

This general law of attendance has an important bearing 
on the subject now under consideration. While we are cer- 
tain that increments in attendance will chiefly affect the lower 
classes, we are not able to predict what special part of the 
school will require an additional teacher, as successive addi- 
tions are made to the enrollment ; but as the present purpose 
is chiefly to illustrate the general manner in which a provis- 
ional grading is to be modified to meet the requirements of 
growth, it will be sufficient to follow the general law which 
governs school attendance. 

Let us, then, suppose that our village school has gradually 
increased in numbers till each teacher has sixty pupils, and 
it has become necessary to employ additional help. As this 
increase in numbers will chiefly affect the primary grade, the 
division which is now required may be made as follows : 
Let the D and C classes of the primary grade constitute one 
school; the B and A classes of the same grade, and the D 
class of the grammar grade, the second school; and the C, 
B, and A classes of the grammar grade, the third school. 
No change need necessarily be made in the course of in- 
struction previously given; but new programmes of recita- 
tions will, of course, be required. 

Let us suppose that for the first school it is thought best 
to allow fifteen minutes for recitation to the lower class, and 
twenty minutes to the higher; and that the whole time de- 
voted to actual class work is five hours. Then, 



n = — ^— = 8f 

2 X 35 7 



PROGRAMME OF RECITATIONS. 
Let us make a correction for T as follows : 

T= nX*X y= 8XfX2 = 280 minutes, 
or four hours and forty minutes. 



101 



PROGRAMME OF RECITATIONS FOR A PRIMARY SCHOOL 
COMPOSED OF TWO GRADES OF PUPILS. 



TIME. 


B CLASS. 


A CLASS. 


9 to 9-10. Opening Exercises. Opening Exercises. 


9-10 to 9-25. Reading (ist Division). 


9-25 to 9-45. 




Reading (ist Division). 


9-45 to 10. Oral Instruction (2d Division). 


10 to 10-20. 




Arithmetic (2d Division). 


10-20 to 10-35 


Oral Instruction (ist Division). 




10-35 to 10-45. 


Recess. 


Recess. 


10-45 to ii-5- Arithmetic (ist Division). 


11-5 to 11-20. Reading (2d Division). 




11-20 to 11-40. 




Reading (2d Division). 


11-40 to 11-45. 


Roll Call. 


Roll Call. 


11-45 to 1. Intermission. 


Intermission. 


1 to 1-15. 


Arithmetic (ist Division). 


1-15 to 1-35. 


Reading (ist Division). 




i-35 to 1-55. 




Reading (ist Division). 


1-55 to 2-10. Oral Instruction (2d Division). 




•2-10 to 2-30. 


Arithmetic (2d Division). 


2-30 to 2-45. Oral Instruction (ist Division). 




2-45 to 3. Recess. 


Recess. 


3 to 3-20. Reading (2d Division). 




3-20 to 3-35. 




Reading (2d Division). 


3-35 to 3-40. 


Roll Call. 


Roll Call. 



102 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

Either of two plans may be followed in arranging such a 
programme. An entire class may be called up for recitation 
eight times each day, or it may be divided into two sections, 
each of which may recite four times a day. It is plain that 
an individual pupil may receive the same amount of attention 
in each case; though the second arrangement is preferable 
when the number . of pupils in a class is large. The first 
plan will give rise to the form on page 101. 

The place of all others to learn the art of grading is such 
a school as we have taken for illustration; and peculiarly 
fortunate is the teacher who is permitted to conduct a school 
through the various stages of its onward progress. 

52. The successive transformations through which 
a graded-school may pass. — The following table is de- 
signed to present a theoretical view of the successive trans- 
formations through which a growing school must pass, from 
its first rude organization to the complete development of all 
the grades of the common school course. It is not pretended 
that, in actual practice, growth will take place at the rate or 
in the manner here indicated. Sometimes an earlier division 
of the lower classes may be necessary ; and such may be the 
rapidity of growth, that two or more new schools must be 
opened at the same time. 



SUCCESSIVE TRANSFORMATIONS. 







1 

PRIMARY GRADE. GRAMMAR GRADE. 


80 pupils in charge f 
of two teachers. \ 


First School. 
Second School. 


D. C. B. A. 


D. C. B. A. 


120 pupils in f 

charge of J 

three teachers. (^ 


First School. 
Second School. 
Third School. 


D. C. 

B. A. 


D. 

C. B. A. 


200 pupils in 

charge of J 
four teachers. 


First School. 
Second School. 
Third School. 
Fourth School. 


d. y 2 c. 
y 2 c. b. 

A. 


D. 

C. B. A. 



GRADED-SCHOOL GROWTH. 



103 



250 pupils in 

charge of 
five teachers. 


First School. 
Second School. 
Third School. 
Fourth School. 
Fifth School. 


D. 
C. 
B. 

A. 


C. B. A. 


300 pupils in 1 
charge of -I 
six teachers. 


First School. 
I Second School. 
j Third School. 

fourth School. 

Fifth School. 

Sixth School. 


D. 
C 

B. 

A. 


D. C. 

B. A. 


350 pupils in 

charge of 
seven teachers. 


First School. 
Second School. 
Third School. 
Fourth School. 
Fifth School. 
Sixth School. 
Seventh School. 


P. 

C. 
B. 
A. 


D. C. 

B. A. 


400 pupils in 

charge of 
eight teachers. 


First School. 
Second School. 
Third School. 
Fourth School. 
Fifth School. 
Sixth School. 
Seventh School. 
Eighth School. 


% D. 

C. 

B. 
A. 


D. 

C. 

B. A. 


450 pupils in 

charge of 
nine teachers. 


First School. 
Second School. 
Third School. 
Fourth School. 
Fifth School. 
Sixth School. 
Seventh School. 
Eighth School. 
Ninth School. 


y 2 c. 

B. 
A. 


D. 

C. 

B. A. 


500 pupils in 

charge of < 
ten teachers. 

1 


First School. 
Second School. 
Third School. 
Fourth School. 
Fifth School. 
Sixth School. 
Seventh School. 
Eighth School. 
Ninth School. 
Tenth School. 


y 2 c. 
y*c. 

B. 
A. 


D. 
C. 

B. 
A. 



During the successive periods of its growth, the classifica- 
tion of a school should become more and more exact. Lim- 



104 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

ited accommodations and a lack of teachers may at first 
prevent a strict grading of pupils; but, in proportion as 
these obstacles are removed, smaller differences in individual 
attainment should be provided for. 

When a school has reached the final stage indicated in the 
above table, nothing needs to be done, in case of further 
growth, except to establish parallel schools of the same grade. 
The common school course of instruction has now received 
its full development; and, in process of time, the establish- 
ment of the high school grade will become necessary. 

In what has preceded I have attempted to show the man- 
ner of employing the data which must be used in grading an 
unorganized school. The general impression intended to be 
conveyed is that, in this art, considerable exactness is both 
desirable and possible. It has not been thought necessary 
to enter into a minute explanation of the equations which 
have been employed. A slight examination will show that 
the primary equation expresses the exact relation between 
the several data which must enter into a rational distribution 
of work. The derivation of the secondary equations is obvi- 
ous ; and the substitution of values for n, t, Y, and T in each 
case will be readily comprehended. 

As the art of grading schools is one of the most difficult, 
and, perhaps, one of the least understood of a teacher's pro- 
fessional duties, it might very properly form a topic of in- 
struction in the higher classes in normal schools. By em- 
ploying the simple formulae given in this chapter, pupils may 
be shown how to arrange a course of instruction and pro- 
grammes of recitations suitable for given conditions. 

53. Synopsis of a common school course of in- 
struction. — The following synopsis of a course of instruc- 
tion for the primary and grammar grades of a completely 
graded school will conclude this chapter. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 



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CHAPTER VI. 

THE ART OF GRADING SCHOOLS 

(CONCLUDED). 



H07) 



SUMMARY. 

The high school grade. Opposition to high schools. The Kala- 
mazoo high school case. The special value of high schools. When 
the high school grade should be established. Courses of study for 
high schools. Relation of high schools to colleges. Course of study 
for a first-class high school. The use of text-books. The interval 
between classes. The multiplication of classes. The reconstruction 
of schools. The use and abuse of system. Future high school 
policy. 



(108) 



THE ART OF GRADING SCHOOLS 

(concluded). 

54. The High School grade. — In many places of 
smaller size, the high school grade should not be estab- 
lished; the course should stop with what is known as the 
grammar grade. As the high school is the most expensive 
part of the system, it ought not to be organized till there 
are pupils enough to furnish employment for at least one 
teacher. Up to this period, pupils who have completed the 
studies of the grammar grade, and wish to go still farther, 
should go away to some school where they can have the 
advantages which can not be afforded at home. It is not 
true that a community is justifiable in establishing a school 
of high grade for one per cent of its school population. 
The same economic principles should be practiced in the 
financial management of a school as in that of private 
business. Not what is desirable in itself, but what can be 
afforded, should be the principle of action. 

What has just been said should not be construed as in 
any way hostile to the establishment of a high school when 
there is sufficient material to support one. A well developed 
system of public instruction is no more complete without the 
addition of a high school than an otherwise well developed 
man, without the larger brain; and so long as education 
is regarded as the corner-stone of a representative govern- 

U09) 



no SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

ment, public instruction must do more than teach children 
to read, write, spell, and cypher. These arts, though in- 
dispensable, do not include all that is essential for citizen- 
ship. The primary school marks the minimum of instruc- 
tion — that without which no one is fit for citizenship in a 
free state; but it is a gross perversion of reason to declare 
that the state should desert the child the moment he has 
learned the rudiments of an education. A highly developed 
state requires a highly developed system of public instruc- 
tion. The mere ability to read and write may fit men to 
choose their rulers, but it will not fit them to rule. In a 
government like ours, where the governed of to-day may 
become the rulers to-morrow, it is not safe to withhold op- 
portunities whereby all may learn what is needful for taking 
part in the administration of public affairs. 

There is no error in reasoning more common, or more 
fatal, than that of erecting the results of individual experi- 
ence into a general law. This error is most common among 
men whom a wider culture would have emancipated from 
ignorant prejudices. A man whose early educational oppor- 
tunities were limited to the resources of a country school, 
but who, by unusual force of character, has risen to posi- 
tions of influence, will usually ascribe his good fortune to 
the lack of better facilities for education, and will argue 
from thence that high schools and colleges are useless. If, 
as is probable, such a man is a demagogue, he will rail at 
schools of a higher order, and will see in them manifest 
proofs of the corruptions of the times, and of the urgent 
need of returning to primitive simplicity. 

55. Opposition to high schools. — Public high schools 
are opposed by two widely different classes of men — by the 
ignorant and bigoted, and by the cultivated who are self- 
ishly interested in schemes of private instruction. Wherever 



THE KALAMAZOO HIGH SCHOOL CASE. in 

denominational colleges are so weak as to come into com- 
petition with public schools, there will be found those who 
deny to the state the right to provide for the higher edu- 
cation of its citizens. There is a legitimate field for de- 
nominational enterprise in establishing schools for special 
denominational needs; but, at this late day, it is not be- 
coming to force all who thirst for knowledge to take the cup 
from clerical hands or perish from the want of knowledge. 
The Church certainly has a right to educate, but it has not 
a proscriptive right to prevent the State from educating. 

56. The Kalamazoo high school case. — A recent 
decision of the Supreme Court of Michigan has put to rest 
a question which has occasionally arisen as to the legal right 
to support a high school by public tax. The complainant's 
theory was, 

1 st. That a high school exists in fact, but not in law. 

2d. That only schools in which the primary English 
branches are exclusively taught can be legally supported 
by tax. 

3d. That there is no law authorizing the employment of 
a superintendent. 

An opinion in this case was delivered in court, Feb. 9th, 
1874, by Judge Charles Brown, of the Ninth Judicial Circuit 
of Michigan. The essential points in the decision are the 
following : 

"The special acts of the Legislature, when construed in 
connection with the general law, authorize the establishment 
of the school in question, and the employment of a super- 
intendent whose salary may be paid by a tax upon the 
property of the district." 

"The tax levied upon the property of the complainants 
for school purposes was levied in accordance with the pro 
vision of the constitution." 



112 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

An appeal was subsequently taken to the Supreme Court 
of Michigan, in which the decision of the lower court was 
fully sustained. 

The following is a partial abstract of the opinion of 
Judge Cooley in the case : 

"Taxation for higher education. — The more general ques- 
tion, legally stated, is whether there is authority in this state 
to make the high schools free by taxation levied on the 
people at large. The argument is that while there may be 
no constitutional provision expressly prohibiting such taxa- 
tion, the general course of the state's legislation, and the 
popular understanding of the people, require us to regard 
instruction in the classics and in living modern languages 
in these schools as not practical, and, therefore, unneces- 
sary for the people at large, but rather as accomplishments 
for the few, to be sought after in the main by those best 
able to pay for them, and to be paid for by those who 
seek them and not by general tax. It is surprising that 
the legislation and policy of the state should be appealed to 
against the right of the state to furnish a liberal education 
to its youth. We supposed it had always been understood 
in Michigan that education, not merely rudimentary but in 
an enlarged sense, was regarded as an important practical 
advantage, to be supplied at will, to rich and poor alike, 
and not as something pertaining merely to culture and ac- 
complishment, to be brought as such within the reach of 
those who would pay for it. Territorial and state legislation 
on this point may be profitably surveyed. 

"The constitution as adopted provided for the establish- 
ment of free schools in every school district for at least 
three months in the year, and for the University. By the 
aid of these we have every reason to believe the people 
expected a complete collegiate education might be obtained. 



THE KALAMAZOO HIGH SCHOOL CASE. 113 

The branches of the university had ceased to exist, and it 
must either have been understood that young men were to 
be prepared for the University in the common schools, or 
that they should go abroad for that purpose, or be prepared 
in private schools. Private schools adapted to the purpose 
were almost unknown in the state, and very few, then, had 
money enough to educate their children abroad. The in- 
ference is irresistible that the people expected the tendency 
toward the establishment of high schools in the primary 
school districts would continue until every locality capable of 
supporting one was supplied. This inference is strengthened 
by the fact that many of our union schools date their estab- 
lishment from 1850, and the two or three years after. 

1 ' State educational policy. — If these facts do not clearly 
and conclusively demonstrate a general state policy, begin- 
ning in 1 81 7, and continuing until after the adoption of 
the present constitution, in the direction of free schools in 
which education, and at their option the elements of class- 
ical education, might be brought within the reach of all 
the children of the state, then nothing can demonstrate it. 
Subsequent legislation has all concurred with this policy. 
Neither in our state policy, in our constitution, nor in our 
laws are the primary school districts restricted in the 
branches of knowledge which their officers may cause to 
be taught, or the grade of instruction that may be given, 
if their voters consent, in regular form, to bear the expense 
and raise the taxes for the purpose. 

" Superintendency of schools. — As to the other question, the 
power to appoint a superintendent was incident to the full 
control which by law the board had over the schools of the 
district, and the board and the people of the district have 
been wisely left by the legislature to follow their own judg- 
ment in the premises." 
S- S.— 10, 



114 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

If the complainant's prayer had been granted in this case, 
the public school system of Michigan would have presented 
the curious spectacle of a great university at one extreme, 
the primary school at the other, and a dead blank between. 
What beautiful consistency to found that university by a 
constitutional provision, and then, virtually, to deny to pu- 
pils the privilege of entering it! 

57. The special value of high schools. — Besides 
their general utility, there are special reasons why high 
schools should be cherished wherever they can be legiti- 
mately established. They are the most democratic of our 
public institutions. They offer to the poor and to the rich, 
on equal terms, a culture which will adorn and ennoble 
any situation in life. By their influence, the communities 
in which they are situated may be repeatedly reenforced by 
accessions of cultivated citizens, so that in the course of 
a few years the whole tone of society may be elevated. 
There is scarcely a benefit to society which is comparable 
to this. 

Besides, a vigorous high school is needed to give tone 
and efficiency to the lower grades, to offer that inspiration 
to effort which is needed to retain pupils in school. 

Finally, as has already been shown (§24), the teaching 
force needed in a graded system is most efficiently recruited 
from the high school. In this way, a system of public in- 
struction becomes self-sustaining. 

58. When the high school grade should be estab- 
lished. — On the average, not more than twelve per cent 
of the entire high school enrollment will complete the course. 
If the course of study occupy three years, the highest class 
will constitute one-eighth of the school; the middle class, 
three-eighths; and the lowest class, one-half. Hence, if, on 
the average, sixteen pupils enter the high school each year 



COURSES OF STUDY FOR HIGH SCHOOLS. 115 

from the grammar grade, the whole enrollment will be thirty- 
two pupils, forming three classes, of sixteen, twelve, and 
four pupils, respectively. To conduct such a school properly 
will require all the time which the principal can spare from 
his work of supervising, and that of an assistant in addition. 
It seems to me that a high school should not be organized 
until there is assurance that at least thirty pupils will be in 
attendance when the school is in good working order. 

I learn from the statistics of forty of the principal high 
schools of Michigan that, on the average, their membership 
does not exceed six per cent of the whole school enrollment. 
Thus our high school of thirty will require an aggregate 
enrollment of five hundred pupils. I think it may then be 
assumed that, in general, when the actual school enrollment 
is less than five hundred, the high school grade ought not 
to be established. 

The statement is subject to some ambiguity from the fact 
that so called high schools differ so much in their character. 
I shall assume that a high school, properly called, should 
have a course of study sufficient to prepare pupils for the 
scientific course in first-class colleges. A department of 
this kind will require a course of study for three years, em- 
bracing higher English, higher mathematics, and the natural 
sciences. 

59. Courses of study for high schools. — The syn- 
opsis on the following page is designed to present a course 
of instruction suitable for a third-grade high school. 

When the aggregate attendance is from eight hundred to 
one thousand, there may be two courses of instruction, 
offering to pupils some choice in the selection of their 
studies. It may be remarked here, that the high school 
should be popularized by adapting the course of instruction 
to the varied needs and preferences of its pupils. Every 



n6 



SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 



SYNOPSIS OF A COURSE OF STUDY FOR A THIRD- 
GRADE HIGH SCHOOL. 





FIRST TERM. 


SECOND TERM. 


THIRD TERM. 




Book-keeping. 

Algebra. 
Arithmetic. 


Analysis. 

Algebra. 

Physical Geography. 


Analysis. 
Algebra. 
Physical Geography. 


Q 

Z « 
O < 

u a 

1/5 


History. 
Algebra. 
Geometry. 


History. 

Natural Philosophy. 

Geometry. 


History. 

Natural Philosophy. 

Geometry. 


1? 

s w 

H > 


English Literature. 

Chemistry. 

Physiology. 


English Literature. 

Chemistry. 

Rhetoric. 


English Literature. 
Political Science. 
Astronomy. 



proper inducement should be held out to encourage pupils 
to persevere in their studies till they can be graduated from 
the high school. For this reason, it is well to restrict the 
course to three years in cases where the school is small, and 
where there has not yet been developed that esprit de corps 
which of itself is an invaluable incentive to perseverance. 

On the opposite page is a synopsis of two courses of 
study for what may be called a second-grade high school. 

60. Relation of high schools to colleges. — In states 
where the public school system culminates in a university, 
there should be a system of preparatory schools, like the 
Foundation Schools of England, which will fit pupils for 
entering on a collegiate course of instruction. A spirit 
of unity and consistency should so pervade a system of 
instruction that it may be equally good for the pupil who 
stops at the end of any given period and for the pupil who 
continues his studies into or through a higher grade. That 
is, a grammar school course should be of such a character 
as to afford the greatest advantage to the pupils who leave 



SECOND-GRADE HIGH SCHOOL. 



117 



SYNOPSIS OF TWO COURSES OF STUDY SUITABLE FOR 
A SECOND-GRADE HIGH SCHOOL. 







LATIN COURSE. 


ENGLISH COURSE. 




E 


Latin. 


Book-keeping. 






Algebra. 


Algebra. 


ft! 

< 

> 
H 

CD 

Pi 


If, 


Analysis. 


Analysis. 




Latin. 
Algebra. 


Analysis. 
Algebra. 




Physical Geography. 


Physical Geography. 


fa 


E 


Latin. 


Arithmetic. 




H 


Algebra. 


Algebra. 




-a 


Physical Geography. 


Physical Geography. 




E 


Latin. 


History. 




H 


Algebra. 


Algebra. 


< 

>< 


« 


Plane Geometry. 


Plane Geometry. 


E 


Latin. 


History. 


P 


h 


Natural Philosophy. 


Natural Philosophy. 


O 
<J 
W 

CO 


TJ 


Plane Geometry. 


Plane Geometry. 


e 


Latin. 


History. 






Natural Philosophy. 


Natural Philosophy. 






Solid Geometry or Zoology. 


Botany. 




s 


Latin. 


English Literature. 




H 


History. 


Chemistry. 


<! 

W 




French or German. 


Botany. 


e 


Latin. 


English Literature. 


q 


H 


History. 


Chemistry. 


tf 


T3 


French or German. 


Physiology or Rhetoric. 










E 


Latin. 


English Literature. 




£ 


History. 


Geology or Analytical Chemistry. 




-0 


French or German. 


Astronomy. 



Ii8 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

school at the end of this period, and to those who are to 
enter the high school. No one questions the truth of this 
doctrine when applied to the ordinary common school course; 
but it is a quite commonly received opinion that a high 
school course which is arranged with reference to the re- 
quirements of a university or college is not the best for 
pupils who are to take no higher course. If this opinion 
is well founded, it must be that collegiate instruction is not 
a logical continuation of public school instruction. If this 
higher instruction is general and not special, if it has refer- 
ence to the humanities and not to specialties, there can not 
be this incompatibility. If, on the other hand, it is true 
that a preparation for college requires a course of second- 
ary instruction which is not suitable for pupils in general, 
it follows that the college course is not designed for the 
liberal education of its students. I assume that the higher 
education afforded by universities 'and colleges should be a 
culture in the humanities, and, consequently, that it should 
be the natural continuation of the instruction given in the 
high school. Unless a state university really fulfills the 
conditions of this relation, it is certainly not a legitimate 
member of the general educational system, and ought to be 
reconstructed or abandoned. 

It is true, I suppose, that while our public school system 
is of recent origin, and therefore responds quite fully to 
the exigencies of modern life and thought, the college is 
rather a mediaeval institution, reflecting the opinions, the 
culture, and the needs of an obsolete state of society. It 
is for this reason, doubtless, that the college is sometimes 
felt to be outside the general public school system, and out 
of sympathy with it. There is no reason in the nature of 
things why this incongruity should continue; and there 
seems to be no remedy save in a close conformity of col- 



THE USE OF TEXT-BOOKS. 119 

legiate instruction to the general educational spirit which is 
abroad among the people, and which has made our public 
school system what it is. 

61. Course of study for a first-class high school. — 
The schedule on the two following pages presents a synopsis 
of five courses of study, designed for a complete high school 
of at least one hundred and fifty pupils, and five teachers. 

62. The use of text-books. — It will be observed that 
all the courses of study which have been presented in this 
chapter have reference to text-book instruction alone. An 
opinion has been gaining ground for several years that the 
use of text-books is an evil, to a greater or less extent; and 
that oral instruction should be the teacher's ideal. Without 
doubt, the servile use of a text-book, whereby teaching be- 
comes mere lesson-hearing, is a great evil; but it is even a 
greater evil to discard the use of books. One great end of 
popular instruction should be to teach the art of using books. 
A good school-book should be a compendium of facts and 
principles which the pupil should learn and which the teacher 
should amplify and explain. If oral instruction supplement 
text-book instruction, it is legitimate, even indispensable; 
but if it is to supersede the text-book, it is employed for a 
wrong purpose. The actual learning of the text is indis- 
pensable to real scholarship; but this text should be illus- 
trated till the truths which it embodies are comprehended, 
and to some extent understood. It is not sufficient to have 
an idea floating loosely in the mind; it must be defined and 
fixed by a word. So it is not enough that pupils have 
thoughts about a given subject; these thoughts should be 
embodied in concise statements in such a way that they may 
be within the power of the memory. 

"First the idea, then the word" is a dogma of current 
pedagogy. If this is a protest against mere lesson-learning 



120 



SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 



SYNOPSIS OF FIVE COURSES OF STUDY 







CLASSICAL COURSE. 


SCIENTIFIC COURSE. 


< 
w 
>< 

H 

(A 


s 

H 


Latin. 

Algebra. 

Analysis. 


Book-keeping. 

Algebra. 

Analysis. 


H 


Latin. 

Algebra. 

Physical Geography. 


Analysis. 
Algebra. 
Physical Geography. 


E 

H 


Latin. 

Algebra. 

Physical Geography. 


Zoology. 
Algebra. 
Physical Geography. 


w 
>< 

Q 
O 

u 

w 

C/3 


E 
u 
<u 

H 


Latin. 

Algebra. 

Geometry. 


History. 
Algebra. 
Geometry. 


s 

u 

H 


Latin. 

Natural Philosophy. 

Geometry. 


History. 

Natural Philosophy. 

Geometry. 


E 
H 


Latin. 

Natural Philosophy. 

Geometry. 


History. 

Natural Philosophy. 

Geometry. 


pi 
w 

Q 

5 


a" 
- 

u 


Latin. 

History. 

Greek. 


English Literature. 
Chemistry. 
French or German. 


E 

I* 

<u 

H 


Latin. 

History. 

Greek. 


English Literature. 
Chemistry. 
French or German. 


E 
H 


Latin. 

History. 

Greek. 


Botany. 

Geology. 

French or German. 


pi 

>« 

M 

H 

O 


s 

u 

H 


Latin. 

Review of Algebra. 

Greek. 


Botany. 

Review of Algebra. 

French or German. 


E 
H 

N 


Latin. 

Rhetoric. 

Greek. 


Physiology. 

Rhetoric. 

French or German. 




Latin. 

Arithmetic and Geography. 

Greek. 


Geometric Drawing or Astron. 
Arithmetic and Geography. 
French or German. 



FIRST-GRADE HIGH SCHOOL. 



121 



SUITABLE FOR A FIRST-GRADE HIGH SCHOOL. 



LATIN & SCIENTIFIC. 


LATIN COURSE. 


ENGLISH COURSE. 


Latin. 

Algebra. 
Analysis. 


Latin. 

Algebra. 

Analysis. 


Book-keeping. 

Algebra. 

Analysis. 


Latin. 

Algebra. 

Physical Geography. 


Latin. 

Algebra. 

Physical Geography. 


Analysis. 
Algebra. 
Physical Geography. 


Latin. 

Algebra. 

Physical Geography. 


Latin. 

Algebra. 

Physical Geography. 


Arithmetic. 

Algebra. 

Physical Geography. 


Latin. 

Algebra. 

Geometry. 


Latin. 

Algebra. 

Plane Geometry. 


History. 
Algebra. 
Plane Geometry. 


Latin. 

Natural Philosophy. 

Geometry. 


Latin. 

Natural Philosophy. 

Plane Geometry. 


History. 

Natural Philosophy. 

Plane Geometry. 


Latin. 

Natural Philosophy. 

Geometry. 


Latin. 

Natural Philosophy. 

Solid Geom. or Zoology. 


History. 

Natural Philosophy. 

Botany. 


Latin. 

History. 

French. 


Latin. 

History. 

French or German. 


English Literature. 

Chemistry. 

Botany. 


Latin. 

History. 

French. 


Latin. 

History. 

French or German. 


English Literature. 

Chemistry. 

Physiology or Rhetoric. 


Latin. 

History. 

French. 


Latin. 

History. 

French or German. 


English Literature. 
Geology or An. Chemistry. 
Astronomy. 


Latin. 

Review of Algebra. 

French. 






Latin. 

Rhetoric. 

French. 






Latin. 

Arithmetic & Geography. 

French. 







s. s. 



122 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

and lesson-hearing, it is legitimate and timely; but if it is 
put lorward as an axiom of educational philosophy, it is 
false. It is no violation of a true method to teach the word 
first, then the idea; first the verbal statement of a truth and 
then the truth which it embodies; or, even, first the abstract 
and then the concrete. Both processes are legitimate accord- 
ing to circumstances, these circumstances being chiefly the 
amount of the pupil's experience and his quickness in de- 
tecting the special in the general. To say that all instruction 
must begin with the concrete, is to cut us off wholly from 
the past, from every thing in the way of knowledge which 
comes to us by inheritance. For, the accumulated knowledge 
of the past comes to us in abstract statements, which, for the 
most part, we must receive in trust as simple beliefs. It is 
only in a comparatively few cases that these abstract truths 
can be verified by individual experience. 

Some seem to have a strange misconception of the aim 
and purpose of public school instruction. Of late the schools 
have been berated because they do not furnish a "practical" 
education. It appears to be the theory of some that the! 
education which pupils receive in public schools should be 
equivalent to an apprenticeship in some art or trade. Now, 
it is not the province of the public schools to turn out 
engineers, foundry-men, editors, tailors, lawyers, and shoe- 
makers, but rather to form the material of which "practical" 
men are made. Presently, some one may cry out against 
woolen-factories because they do not turn out ready-made 
clothing. The tendency of the American mind is to estimate 
all things by the prices which they will bring in the market; 
and so the education which is not directly transmutable into 
bread is thought of little worth. The schools should teach 
the arts which relate to the general conduct of life. In this 
sense, the highest in which the term can be used, common 



INTERVAL BETWEEN CLASSES. 123 

school education should be practical; but not in the narrow 
sense of teaching handicrafts. The most useful, the most 
truly practical art which can be acquired, is that of reason- 
ing dispassionately and accurately upon all the questions 
which come up for solution in daily life; yet it is certain 
that the studies which best furnish the mind with this ability 
have but little direct use in those employments whereby the 
masses of mankind earn their daily bread. 

63. The interval between classes. — In the courses 
of study which have been presented, the interval between 
classes is one year. Under this arrangement, a pupil who 
is unable to do the work of his grade must be put back for 
at least one year ; and another, who is capable of doing more 
work than his grade requires, must jump a year's work in 
order to be reclassified. It has already been observed that 
skillful management will greatly reduce the occasions for 
such reclassifications. It is further to be remarked that, in 
large schools, there is often a difference between grades which 
are nominally the same. This difference is not enough to 
defeat the promotion of its members, but will often accom- 
modate pupils who find it necessary to pass from one to the 
other. 

To avoid the seeming, and, in some cases, perhaps, the 
real disadvantages of this manner of grading, it is thought 
best by some that the interval between grades should be but 
six months. 

This arrangement certainly facilitates the classification of 
pupils, and, in this respect, has an advantage over the other 
system. It is to be recollected, however, that this manner 
of grading is not practicable in all schools ; although it seems 
to be assumed by some who commend the plan, that it is of 
universal application. 

In general, it is evident that when the successive steps in 



124 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

a graded course are reduced to one-half their length, their 
numbers must be doubled in order to extend over the same 
space. Sixteen grades of six months each are equivalent to 
eight grades of one year each. To regrade a school like 
that described in section 49, would double the number of 
classes in every department; and unless there are pupils 
enough in each of the new grades to form at least one 
school, this mode of grading is impracticable. Thus, each 
teacher in the school of section 53 would have twice 
the number of classes as before; and unless there are pupils 
enough to form two schools, this close grading is imprac- 
ticable. In a grammar department having a two years' 
course, in which there are pupils enough for two teachers, 
say one hundred, there may be four grades instead of two. 
For, in this case, each teacher may have two classes of dif- 
ferent grades, instead of two classes of the same grade. On 
the other hand, if this department is comprised in a single 
school of fifty pupils, it is evident that one teacher could not 
attend to the four grades which the new classification would 
make necessary. 

It is evident that, in order to work harmoniously, the same 
method of grading must be employed in every department of 
the school. Thus, if promotions take place in the primary 
school twice a year, they must occur at the same time in 
the grammar school ; for otherwise there will be a gradual 
accumulation of grades in the latter department. If two 
new classes enter a department each year, two classes must 
pass out each year, otherwise the school will be thrown into 
disorder. It is the usual custom, I think, to graduate classes 
from the high school but once a year; and in such cases, 
two classes can not enter it each year without doing violence 
to the system. Of course this objection will not appear in 
those schools which are not large enough to support a high 



MULTIPLICATION OF CLASSES. 125 

school; but in schools of this size, the closer grading is 
impracticable. 

Recent discussions of the graded-school system, and criti- 
cisms on its stereotyped methods, have induced some super- 
intendents to reduce the interval between classes to ten 
weeks. Even where such an arrangement is practicable, it 
is difficult to see its necessity or utility. Surely there is not 
such an inequality among pupils as to require these frequent 
readjustments. If there be pupils whose rate of progress 
differs so much from that of the multitude, their number 
must be exceedingly small ; and the plan of the school ought 
not to be adapted to their exclusive needs and thus ignore 
the good of the greater number. For it is manifestly true, 
that when classes are reconstructed so frequently, the school 
will be kept in a state of unstable equilibrium — pupils will 
not pursue the even tenor of their way, but will be tempted 
to do superficial work in order to outstrip their classmates. 
Such frequent reclassifications are not only unnecessary but 
positively injurious. 

64. The multiplication of classes. — Attention may 
here be called to a fact of importance. There is always 
danger of multiplying grades in the primary department. 
Beginning classes must be organized at least twice each year, 
and if such classes are not merged into one during the year, 
there will be a gradual increase in grades. The one general 
plan to follow is to place the older and more capable mem- 
bers of the first class with an advanced class, and the younger 
and less advanced with the class which last entered the 
department. Usually, this course can be followed without 
doing violence to the interests of any pupil. At least, here, 
as every-where, the good of the greatest number must be 
respected. The multiplication of grades must be prevented 
at all hazards; for if it is allowed, it will soon involve the 



126 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

whole school, and lead to the virtual abandonment of the 
graded system. 

65. The reconstruction of schools. — For the sake 
of simplification, it has been assumed that the reader is 
interested in the gradual evolution of a completely graded- 
school out of a small unorganized school. The object has 
been chiefly to show the mode of development, the princi- 
ples which are involved in grading, and finally the model 
oi a thoroughly graded-school. It will not often happen that 
a man will be called upon to conduct a school through such 
marked periods of growth. Usually this work is done grad- 
ually, by successive hands; but it is all-important, as a neces- 
sary preliminary to any variety of successful supervision, to 
have a well-defined notion of what a graded-school should 
be. Without such an ideal, it will not be possible, either to 
reconstruct a degraded-school, to keep up a good classifica- 
tion already made, or to carry forward the classification of a 
growing school. 

Assuming that enough has been said with reference to the 
gradual building up of a school, it may not be amiss to add 
some suggestions relative to the reconstruction of a school 
which, for whatever cause, has lapsed into some degree of 
disorganization ; to holding a school in the even tenor of its 
way ; and to carrying forward a classification already begun. 
Graded-schools sometimes fall into decay through the lack 
of good supervision. Unless there is constant vigilance, 
grades will multiply, first in the primary department, and 
finally throughout the entire school, till the classification has 
been destroyed. Teachers will sometimes hold back classes 
from promotion merely because they dislike to part with 
favorite pupils, and in this way a disorganizing element is 
introduced. Again, some superintendents and principals 
favor a loose classification, which, in the end. means an 



RE CONS TR UCTION OF SCHO OLS. 127 

abandonment of the graded system. But whatever the cause 
of the trouble may be, it is necessary to know what general 
line of policy it is best to follow. 

(1) If there is not a course of study regularly drawn up, 
or if there is a course which is manifestly imperfect, one 
should be arranged and printed, so that pupils, teachers, and 
parents may know what work will be required. 

(2) Ascertain with as much exactness as possible the posi- 
tions of all the classes in school (Blank § 87), and then 
rearrange the classes and departments with reference to the 
course of study. At best, such an organization is merely 
an approximation to what should ultimately be attained. 

(3) During the year watch attentively the progress of the 
classes, and if it is discovered that pupils are well up with 
their grade-work in some studies, but are lagging in others, 
withdraw attention somewhat from the first and give it to 
the second. 

(4) At the close of the year, ascertain the standing of 
pupils with still greater exactness, and bring the classes into 
still greater conformity to the course. 

(5) Make promotions simultaneously throughout the school, 
and prevent a multiplication of classes in the primary grades. 

When a superintendent or principal comes in charge of a 
school which is in good condition, no radical change should 
be made in the general line of policy. If, as is probable, 
some feature of the system needs to be brought into greater 
efficiency, develop this part of the school. At any rate, 
make no haste to introduce changes, unless it is plain that 
there is pressing need of them. It is a false notion to take 
for granted that a predecessor's work is full of flaws which 
must be repaired. It is a great wrong to attempt to establish 
a reputation by casting discredit on the quality of the work 
which has been done. Rather than to tear down, the policy 



128 SCHOOL SCTERriSlOX. 

should be to strengthen, to develop, the existing system. A 
needless change in general management is of itself a disaster; 
but it is made unnecessarily great by overturning the system 
left by a predecessor. The usual sequence of such a step 
is a radical alteration in the course of instruction, a change 
in text-books, and a widely different line of general policy. 
This is one of the greatest evils from which our schools 
suffer. It has its origin, to a great extent, in crude notions 
oi the art of school supervision, and it will gradually dis- 
appear as school boards, teachers, and superintendents 
become informed of the general principles which should be 
followed in work of this nature. 

66. The use and abuse of system. — In concluding 
this portion of my work, I am reminded that something 
should be said of the abuses which are made of systems in 
general and of the graded system of schools in particular. 
In general, systems are useful in proportion as they are 
administered with intelligence and prudence; and they be- 
come mischievous when they are allowed to work by virtue 
of some inherent power which they are supposed to possess. 
Even a machine which breaks stone needs intelligent over- 
sight; much more a system which has for its object the 
training of human beings endowed with intellects and wills. 
Oi all systems, a school will soonest lead to disaster when 
left to itself. At every moment there is needed the quick 
eye and the ready hand in order to secure that harmony of 
movement which is all-essential. There is not an hour in 
the day in which some event does not occur which, if not 
properly adjusted, will derange some portion of the system: 
and a repetition of such cases will ultimately lead to ruin. 
It is unjust to charge mere system with either praise or 
blame. It is a machine which grinds well or ill, according 
OS it is managed well or ill. 



USE AND ABUSE OF SYSTEM. 129 

It is sometimes said that a system is a good thing provided 
it be not pushed too far — if it be not applied with too great 
exactness. That is, an unsystematic use of a system will do 
well enough, but the rigorous employment of a system will 
tend to evil. Here, as elsewhere, "the letter killeth, the 
spirit maketh alive." It is not system which kills, but the 
misuse of system, the divorce of intelligence from the chan- 
nels through which it operates. 

Depend upon it, a loose classification, as in section 
53, is an evil compared with a close classification, as in 
section 49. Yet some superintendents think they are 
entitled to special credit for tolerating a departure from true 
system, when the only thing required is an intelligent em- 
ployment of system. 

It is a great error to suppose that system requires us to 
ignore time, place, and circumstances. It is taken for 
granted that all who are called to administer the affairs of 
social, civil, or religious organizations have good sense and 
ability to make all needed allowances for what is exceptional. 
All systems must necessarily be framed with reference to the 
general, the ordinary, and not with reference to the special, 
the extraordinary; and when exceptional cases arise, it is to 
be presumed that they are to be provided for. 

An adherence to mere system should never endanger the 
health or bodily comfort of children. It is proper that a 
time should be fixed for the opening of school-rooms; but 
if, in inclement weather, a child should reach the school 
before the stated time for opening, he should be allowed to 
enter rather than suffer bodily discomfort. Similarly, pupils, 
when once within the school-room, should be made comfort- 
able, even if it is at the expense of some derangement of 
technical good order. 

Rigor in examination should not insist on the same pro- 



130 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

ficiency in every branch of study. All pupils can not do 
equally well in each of the studies of the course, and if 
it appears that a pupil has done all he is capable of doing 
in a given study, and is not so deficient as to defeat the 
ends of promotion, he should not be kept back from the 
advanced studies, though his standing in this one branch is 
low. The editor of the National Teacher's Monthly very 
justly observes that "proficiency in an average of all studies 
is, after all, the only just method of classification in school." 

It is a systematic use of a system to make it bend to the 
requirements of exceptional cases ; and if there is not enough 
elasticity in it for such purposes it is unnatural, and should 
be either abandoned or reconstructed. 

There is no doubt that the system of graded-schools 
has sometimes fallen into disrepute through faults in its ad- 
ministration, one of which, probably, is a servile adherence 
to form, to order, to the love of unity, pushed to the extreme. 
It is here that "a little knowledge is a dangerous thing." 
It is something, to be sure, to make a mill grind, but the 
grinding will be ofttimes bad, if there be not an ability to 
regulate the machinery to suit the various uses which are 
made of it. 

67. Future high school policy. — Two different modes 
of thought, two distinct intellectual tendencies, two pro- 
foundly-felt needs, are striving for mastery in our American 
high schools. The love of a generous culture for its own 
sake, a veneration for antiquity, and an enlightened con- 
servatism would model our high school after the German 
gym?iasiw?i ; while the love of knowledge for its objective 
benefits, the spirit of business enterprise so intensely Amer- 
ican, and that radicalism which turns its back on the past 
are attempting to embody their ideas of what an education 
ought to be in the real-schule. In Germany, the struggle 



FUTURE HIGH SCHOOL POLICY. 131 

between these two modes of thought has led to the establish- 
ment of two varieties of high schools: the gymnasium, or 
classical school, in which the ancient languages hold the 
principal place; and the real-schule, devoted particularly to 
the natural sciences and the modern languages. In the 
gymnasia are educated the professional men, — clergymen, 
physicians, lawyers, men of letters; while the real-schulen 
furnish the country with its semi-professional men, — bankers, 
surveyors, inspectors of mines, engineers, etc. 

The general character of these institutions is clearly de- 
fined in the following quotation from Un voyage scholaire en 
Allemagne, Revue des deux mondes, 15 Juin, 1875: 

' ' The gymnasium and the real-schule are two schools of the 
same rank. The progress of the sciences and the changes 
which have taken place in society have rendered this division 
necessary. While the gymnasium attains its end by the 
study of the languages, and especially by the study of the 
classical languages of antiquity, and secondarily by the 
mathematics, the real-schule turns rather to the present, 
that is, toward the vernacular tongue and the foreign lan- 
guages, to which are added the mathematics and the natural 
sciences; but, as the present can not be understood without 
a knowledge of the past, the real-schule can not neglect the 

study of history In realizing this programme, 

it will dissipate the error of those who think that it should 
furnish those varieties of knowledge which are of immediate 
use in life. Without doubt, the school ought to have a 
regard for the exigencies of life, and the establishment of 
the real-schulen is to prove that there is this regard; but it 
must not be forgotten that the school has to do with children, 
with young people, for whom we should be content to lay a 
firm foundation in communicating that knowledge which is 
general and desirable. 1 ' 



132 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

The American high school has been formed on the class- 
ical model; but it has every-where had to struggle, and still 
struggles, with the same spirit, which, in Germany, led to 
the establishment of the real-schule. It can not be doubted 
that the current of American thought sets strongly toward 
the extreme practical view of education as opposed to class- 
ical culture; and most high schools have been constrained 
to modify the traditional course of instruction, or at least to 
offer parallel courses of study which are largely scientific. 
It is needless to say that no nation that aspires after true 
greatness can dispense with that variety of culture which is 
communicated chiefly in the classical school; and there is 
no great nation in such urgent need of this high intellectual 
culture as ours. At the same time, there is an absolute need 
of knowledge adapted to the exigencies of daily life, of that 
culture which is best communicated in the real-schule. Our 
schools of secondary instruction are attempting to respond 
to both these needs by offering two courses of study, one 
classical, the other scientific. Can two schools, so dissimilar 
in purpose and method as the gymnasium and the real-schule, 
be successfully united under one management? I think it 
is an observed fact that those of our high schools which are 
really successful in one of these special departments accom- 
plish scarcely any thing in the other; while the testimony of 
both Germany and France, after an experience of a century 
in the first instance, is most emphatic on this point; the two 
varieties of schools flourish only when they are kept distinct 
and managed by special faculties. 

Our true policy would seem to be, to maintain our class- 
ical schools apart, wherever there is a concurrence of 
circumstances favorable for their growth; and, in all other 
cases, to imitate the German real-schule. 



CHAPTER VII. 

REPORTS, RECORDS, AND BLANKS. 



«*33> 



SUMMAR Y. 

The use and abuse of school statistics. Teacher's Monthly Report. 
Transfers. Half-day sessions. Number belonging. Per cent of at- 
tendance. Attendance rules. Warning notices. Suspensions. Sum- 
mary of attendance. Absolute enrollment. Average per cent of 
attendance. Average attendance in months. Fluctuations in attend- 
ance. School directory. Ages of pupils. Corporal punishment report. 
Tabulated statement of cases of punishment. Daily programme. Chart 
of text-book work. Notification to parents. Teacher's class-book. 
Marking recitations. Record of monthly and term standing. Princi- 
pal's record of final standing. The school register. Cost of education 
per capita. Comparative statistics. Concluding remarks on records 
and blanks. 



M34) 



REPORTS, RECORDS, AND BLANKS. 

68. The use and abuse of school statistics. — The 

intelligent supervision of schools must be based largely on 
the facts which are developed by the working of the system. 
In all rational progress, the point of departure must be the 
actual condition of the schools as revealed by certain classes 
of facts ; and when carefully devised plans have been placed 
in operation, the direction and rate of the general movement 
can be ascertained only by a careful scrutiny of ascertained 
results. It is quite as absurd to direct the movements of a 
large school without the aid of accurate statistics as to num- 
bers, attendance, etc., as to assume the general management 
of an army without detailed statements which exhibit its exact 
condition. Besides, as certain statistics are required by law, 
it is not a matter of choice whether records be kept or not. 

In actual practice, two extremes are sometimes followed. 
Some superintendents have a taste for statistical reports, and 
so require blanks to be filled out for almost every imaginable 
thing; nor is it material whether the facts are of a nature to 
be used for any definite purpose. The love of system may 
be carried so far that the mere gathering of facts is an end 
in itself. 

It is a needless waste of time to tabulate certain orders of 
facts which are merely curious ; they have so little relation 
to the great results of school organization, and so little influ- 

(i35) 



136 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

ence in shaping lines of policy, that they deserve no perma- 
nent record. 

On the other hand, some schools have no systematic 
records; nothing which may serve to guide a new adminis- 
tration in comprehending the general situation. Principals 
and superintendents owe certain duties to their successors; 
and a most important one is an intelligible record of what 
has been accomplished. It has happened in more than one 
instance that large schools have been left without the least 
record which could be used to throw light on the actual 
condition of affairs. 

Every school, even the smallest, should have some definite 
system of reports, records, and blanks. These should be 
contrived so as to yield accurate and important information. 
They should not be kept as mere curiosities, or as evidence 
of great statistical ability, but should be as few and as simple 
as is consistent with real utility. 

69. Teacher's Monthly Report. — The blank here pre- 
sented, or one of similar scope, should be used in every 
public school, large or small. Some of the items are imper- 
ative ; all are of great practical interest. It has been thought 
best to distinguish the various items embraced in this report 
with reference to sex. This plan seems desirable on the fol- 
lowing accounts : 

1. The statistical tables authorized by the Bureau of Edu- 
cation require distinct accounts of the whole number of boys 
and of girls, and of the average daily attendance of each sex. 
It is therefore necessary to keep distinct accounts of transfers 
and of the aggregate attendance in half-days. 

2. The recent discussions of "sex in education" make it 
necessary to record the facts of attendance as they relate to 
the sexes severally. Dr. Clark, reasoning from undisputed 
physiological facts, draws the conclusion that girls can not 



SUMMARY OF ATTENDANCE. 



For the Current Year, from 

School, 



, to 
Grade, 



include under 



recorded, and should be allowed to 

ship ceases through removal, 
of the Board, expulsion, transfer, 
be marked "left." Their absence 



iay when membership actually 









STATEMENT. 



To Obta.n the Statement. 



f days taught. 




SOYS. 


amu. 


TOTALS. 




mber enrolled. 










The sum of A, B, and C. 


y Intra-grade Transfer. 










The sum of column B. 


y Extra-grade Transfer. 










The sum of column C. 


mber entered by Transfe 
-ransfcr. 










1 he sum of B and C. 
The sum of column D. 


by Transfer. 










The sum of column E. 












The sum of D and E. 
The sum of column F. 


belonging on day -f date. 










Nos. 2 and 9, less No. 8. 


olumns headed "Number 


Belonging.' 








The sum of column G. 


e Attendance in half-days 










The sum of H and I. 


Number Belonging. 










Divide No. ti by No. t. 


daily Attendance. 










Divide one-half of No. .» by No 



[No. Ill, to face p. 136.] 

_. Public Schools. 



TEACHER'S MONTHLY REPORT 

For 190... 

School Grade. 

Teacher, 



Coi>vr2sht, 1B7S, by Wilson, Kindle & Co 



TRANSFERS. 137 

be subjected to the same educational methods as boys with- 
out seriously injuring their health. This is a striking example 
of that a priori reasoning which modern scientists have called 
into disrepute. No one will dispute the fact which the Doctor 
assumes as the basis of his argument; but to many it is not 
at all clear that there is any traceable connection between 
the cause and the assumed effects. Let it be assumed that 
"identical" coeducation induces poor health on the part of 
girls. What will be the inevitable result ? Manifestly, under 
normal circumstances, girls will be more irregular in attend- 
ance than boys; and, in consequence, their class work will 
be of a poorer quality. It is plain that we have need of 
the actual facts in the case. If school records show that 
the attendance of girls is more irregular than that of boys, 
then we may very properly look for the cause of the phe- 
nomenon. Possibly we may find it in the fact to which Dr. 
Clark gives so much emphasis. 

Teachers should make the proper entries in this report 
each half-day, immediately after calling the roll. This will 
insure accuracy and save the annoyance of hunting up the 
various items in the school register. At the close of each 
month, all that is necessary to be done is to copy the entries 
on a new blank, and calculate the items required in the 
"Statement." 

70. Transfers. — Particular attention should be given to 
columns A, B, and C. It is readily seen that, in cases where 
a pupil is transferred from one school to another, there is a 
duplicate enrollment, and that the absolute enrollment can 
be ascertained only by subtracting the number of such trans- 
fers from the aggregate enrollment. It is of prime impor- 
tance, therefore, to distinguish between pupils who have not 
been previously enrolled in any of the schools, and others 
who enter by transfer. Still further, it is necessary to make 

S. S.— 12. 



138 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

a distinction between pupils who are received by transfer. 
For example, suppose we have the following record of en- 
rollment in the grammar grade consisting of four schools, 
and wish to ascertain the absolute enrollment : ' ' Whole en- 
rollment, 745; received by transfer, 142." It is evident that 
these transfers may come from two sources, — either from 
without the grade, as promotions from below or degradations 
from above; or from within the grade, as transfers from one 
grammar school to another. Let us suppose the record made 
as follows: " Whole enrollment, 745; received by extra-grade 
transfer, 82; by intra-grade transfer, 60." From this state- 
ment it appears that there have been sixty duplicate enroll- 
ments in this grade, and that the absolute enrollment is 
745 — 60, or 685. It is often desirable to notice the fluctu- 
ations in attendance in a given grade ; but it is impossible to 
arrive at positive results unless transfers are distinguished as 
above. For lack of better terms, transfers from without the 
grade are called extra-grade, and those from within, intra- 
grade. 

Nothing but constant vigilance on the part of teachers 
will secure accuracy in these items. When a pupil enters, 
the teacher should ascertain whether he has been previously 
enrolled during the current school year; and in case he is 
a transfer, she should ascertain whether he comes from a 
school belonging to her grade, or from a different grade. 

Pupils should not be transferred without taking a notice 
similar to the one on the opposite page to the school to 
which they are sent. 

71. Half-day sessions. — It is important to observe 
that when a school has been in session only a half-day, the 
number entered in column G should be only one-half the 
number belonging on that day. The per cent of attendance 
is found by dividing one-half of the sum of columns H and 



No. IV. 



TRANSFER NOTICE. 



139 






rf 3 P 


3 




> 


C M 


> 




H 




O 00 


3 




W 




s 3 


^ 










W 












2 





























H 




























!? » 












O E 












O O 












~ C 












• 
















k 


<» 




~\ 








&■ 


5s 











v 


^ 




^ 
§ 
=§ 




. 




1 


g 


| 


Si 


00 


<l 




&. 












^ 














<3 














| 


























^ 














3 














S5 














^ 








| 















140 SCHOOL SUPERVISION'. 

I, which shows the number of days of actual attendance, 
by the sum of column G, which shows the number of days 
pupils ought to have been in school. In case the number 
belonging was fifty, and there were forty pupils present 
during the forenoon, while the school was closed during 
the afternoon, the per cent of attendance would be only 
40, by the rule, whereas it should be 80. 

72. Number belonging. — It will readily be seen that 
the number belonging on a given day is to be found by ad- 
justing the whole number enrolled with reference to the en- 
tries in columns D, E, and F. Thus, if the enrollment on 
a given day is 44, and one pupil reenters while three leave, 
the number belonging is 44 -|- 1 — 3, or 42. This is an item 
which deserves attention, as it is one of the data employed 
in calculating the per cent of attendance. 

73. Per cent of attendance. — Per cent of attendance 
is the ratio between the number of pupils belonging and the 
actual attendance. Thus, if on a given day 40 pupils actu- 
ally belong to the school, while only 30 are in attendance, 
the per cent of attendance is 75. This item is significant 
when it shows what portion of the advantages offered by 
our public schools is really improved. In practice, how- 
ever, this is one of the most worthless items furnished by 
school statistics, — worthless because it is often unreliable, 
being calculated upon different data, and sometimes pur- 
posely exaggerated by tampering with facts. Thus, pupils 
who are temporarily absent are marked "left." In this way 
the divisor is diminished and the quotient proportionately 
increased. Again, so anxious are some teachers to make a 
gratifying exhibit, that pupils actually absent are marked 
present. This, of course, makes a fraudulent addition to the 
dividend. It is not at all probable that strictly honest mark- 
ing will carry the per cent of attendance above 97. Even 



PER CENT OF ATTENDANCE. 141 

under the most favorable circumstances, the temporary ab- 
sences caused by sickness and unavoidable necessities will, 
in all probability, reduce this number to 95 or less. Surely 
it is time that an item which figures so largely in our school 
reports should be calculated on reliable data; and I see no 
good reason why there may not be a general agreement upon 
the manner of computing this result. 

The problem will be simplified by recollecting that we 
ought to deal only with the real facts of attendance. The 
first fact is the actual attendance in days. There is no ex- 
cuse for errors in this item. The correctness of the dividend 
may thus be assured beyond all doubt. The computation of 
the divisor is not so simple. Here, however, we shall be 
assisted by simply recording facts. First, there is a clear 
distinction between "number enrolled" and "number be- 
longing." After an attendance of one month, a pupil may 
return to a distant city. Evidently he no longer belongs to 
the school, though his name must be included in the enroll- 
ment. Let us suppose that in a school originally composed 
of 40 pupils, 10 have thus changed their residence. It can 
not be claimed that the per cent of attendance in this case 
should be 75 ; for this number does not show the ratio be- 
tween actual attendance and the opportunity for attendance. 
It is the true number belonging, therefore, as distinguished 
from the whole enrollment, that should constitute the divisor 
used in computing the per cent of attendance. 

The practical difficulty in the case is now reduced to 
the task of determining when a pupil's membership really 
ceases; and this difficulty is limited to the single case in 
which the teacher is ignorant of the cause of a pupil's ab- 
sence. Pupils who are temporarily absent through truancy, 
home duties, illness, etc., should not be marked "left." 
Their absence should be allowed to diminish the per cent 



142 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

of attendance. But pupils whose membership actually ceases 
through removal, death, suspension, expulsion, transfer, or 
from other causes should be marked ' ' left. " As all obliga- 
tion to attend school ceases under such circumstances, these 
absences should not diminish the per cent of attendance. 

An observance of the following rules will secure accurate 
data for the computation of the per cent of attendance : 

i. Pupils temporarily absent from school through truancy, 
illness, home duties, etc., should be included under "number 
belonging." These absences should be recorded, and should 
be allowed to diminish the per cent of attendance. 

2. Pupils whose actual membership ceases through re- 
moval, death, suspension under the rules of the Board, 
expulsion, transfer, or through any other cause should be 
marked "left." Their absence should not be recorded, and 
should not be allowed to diminish the per cent of attendance. 

3. Pupils should be marked "left," under rule second, on 
the day when membership actually ceases. 

4. In case it is impossible to ascertain whether a pupil's 
absence is temporary or permanent, he should be marked 
"left" when he has been absent for five consecutive school 
days. 

5. Whenever a teacher discovers that a pupil hitherto 
marked absent has really withdrawn from school, the record 
should be corrected so as to correspond with the facts in the 
case. 

74. Attendance rules. — Great punctuality is necessary 
in order to receive the benefits of class instruction. The 
pupil who receives individual instruction may resume his 
studies where he left them; but when a member of a class 
has lost a lesson, he has "dropped a stitch" which can not 
readily be taken up. A graded-school can not prosper with- 
out the enforcement of a stringent attendance rule. At best, 



WARNING NOTICES. 143 

much of the ordinary absence is fictitious; and the common 
school can scarcely confer a greater blessing than to teach 
the young habits of punctuality and of strict attention to 
business. Punctuality of attendance should be a condition 
of school membership; and every school should adopt some 
regulations like the following : 

Absences. — Any pupil who shall be absent four half-days 
in four consecutive weeks, without excuse satisfactory to the 
teacher from the parent or guardian, given either in person 
or by written note, shall forfeit his seat in the school. Pu- 
pils thus suspended shall not be restored to the school 
until the parent or guardian shall satisfy the superintendent 
that said pupils will be punctual in future, and obtain from 
him written permission for their return. 

Character of excuses. — No mere statement that the parent 
has kept the pupil at home shall be accepted by the teacher 
as an excuse for tardiness or absence, and unless it shall 
appear that sickness or some other urgent reason, render- 
ing attendence impossible or extremely inconvenient, has 
detained the pupil, the excuse shall not be deemed satis- 
factory. 

75. Warning notices. — When a pupil is in danger of 
supension, under a rule like the foregoing, the teacher 
should send to the parent a warning notice like that on 
the following page. 

In very many instances this notice will prevent the pupil's 
suspension, and, in all cases, the parent will be forewarned 
of a catastrophe which is liable to occur, and he may, if 
he will, take measures to avert it. In general, every proper 
care should be taken to keep parents fully informed as to 
any short-comings on the part of their children which are 
likely to result in trouble. In this manner, in very many 
cases, prospective difficulties will be avoided; and parents 



144 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. No. V. 

FORM OF WARNING NOTICE. 

The Public Schools of 



187 



JUL 



It becomes my duty, by the rules of the Board of 
Trustees, to call your attention to the sections of the rules 
in respect to pupils, printed below, and to notify you that 

is upon the point 

of suspension under said section. I sincerely hope it will 

not be necessary to report. _Jo the 

Superintendent for suspension, but that with your cooperation 

we may avoid all future violation of said rule. 
I am, respectfully, 

Teacher. 



Extracts from the Rules of the Board of Trustees. 

Absences. — Any pupil who shall be absent four half-days in four con- 
secutive weeks, without excuse satisfactory to the teacher, from the parent 
or guardian, given either in person or by written note, shall forfeit his seat in 
the school. Pupils thus suspended shall not be restored to the school until the 
parent or guardian shall satisfy the Superintendent that said pupils will be 
punctual in future, and obtain from him written permission for their return. 

Character of Excuses. — No mere statement that the parent has kept the 
pupil at home shall be accepted by the teacher as an excuse for tardiness or 
absence, and unless it shall appear that sickness or some other urgent reason, 
rendering attendance impossible or extremely inconvenient, has detained the 
pupil, the excuse shall not be deemed satisfactory. 

Any pupil who is habitually tardy or truant, or guilty of open disobedience, 
or insubordination, or who indulges in the use of profane or improper language, 
or who makes use of tobacco in any form during school hours, or whose 
general conduct is injurious, shall be suspended by the principal teacher of 
the school to which he belongs. 



SUSPENSION NOTICE. 145 

will have no occasion to complain that they were ignorant 
of the actual situation of affairs. 

Generally, the teacher must decide whether an excuse is 
legitimate or not. If attendance was impossible or extremely 
inconvenient, the absence should be excused. In some in- 
stances, parents may attempt to save their children from 
suspension by sending excuses which have no real founda- 
tion in fact; but even then the teacher should not go back 
of the parent's word. 

Cases will occur in which dishonest pupils will forge ex- 
cuses, either for themselves or for others. This should be 
treated as a capital offense, punishable, if need be, by sus- 
pension, or even, if repeated, by expulsion. 

For tardiness, an excuse should rarely be granted. In 
nearly every instance it is avoidable by proper diligence. 

76. Suspension. — When a pupil has passed the limits 
assigned in the attendance rule, the teacher has no longer 
a discretionary power in the case; but should report the 
pupil, to whoever has charge of such cases, for suspension. 
This may be done by the following notice : 

No. VI. 



The 


Public 

To 


Sr.honls nf 

SehooL 






Grade. 

for suspension, 
years, for the 




I hereby report 
aged 


to 


you 


following reasoi 


is : 




















T8 7 






Teacher. 



s. s.- 



146 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. No. VII. 

FORM OF SUSPENSION NOTICE. 

The Public Schools of 



Superintendent ' j- Office, 1 8 7 

M 

The following Attendance Rules have bee?i prescribed 
by the Board of Education. I call your attention particu- 
larly to the Absence Rule, and take this method of inform- 
ing you that 

has been absent half-days, without satisfactory 

excuse, and, in obedience to this Rule, is suspended from 
school for four weeks, or until I shall have received the 

fullest assurance that will be regular in future 

and cause no more trouble. 

My office hour is from 8 to 9 A. M. 
Very Respectfully, 

SUPT. 



Extracts from the Rules of the Board of Education. 

absence rule. 

Upon the return of a pupil after any absence, the parent or guardian shall 
give, in person or in writing, an excuse stating the cause. If it shall have 
been the sickness of the pupil, or necessary attendance upon a sick member 
of a family, or death in the family of the pupil, in either of such cases the 
absence shall be excused, and so noted in the register. In every case of the 
absence of a pupil for more than four half-days in any four consecutive 
weeks without satisfactory excuse to the Teacher for any other cause than 
those permitted above, the absentee shall, without exception or favor, be sus- 
pended from the school by the Superintendent, and the fact reported to the 
Board of Education at the next regular meeting. 

CHARACTER OF EXCUSES. 

No Mere Statement that the parent has kept the pupil at home shall 
be accepted by the Teacher as an excuse for absence ; and, unless it shall 
appear that the pupil has been detained by sickness, or some other urgent 
reason, which would render attendance impossible or extremely inconvenient, 
or which would cause a serious and imprudent exposure of health, the excuse 
shall not be deemed satisfactory. 



NOTICE OF RESTORATION. 147 

Finally, if there is no evident reason for forbearance, the 
pupil should be formally suspended by notifying the parent 
of the fact as on the foregoing page. 

The power of restoration is most conveniently and most 
appropriately left with the principal or superintendent. No 
one else is in so favorable a position to judge of all the 
facts and bearings in the case. No arbitrary system should 
be followed in making restorations. If within an hour, there 
is assurance given by the parent that all reasonable diligence 
will be used to secure punctual attendance, the pupil should 
be allowed to return to his school. It is not punctilio, nor 
the demands of an arbitrary system which is to be consulted 
on this and on similar occasions, but the greatest good of the 
pupil and of the school. Sometimes their interests are in 
opposition; and, under such circumstances, the good of the 
greater number must be preferred. 

In cases of unusual difficulty, the question of restoration 
should be submitted to the board for decision. 

Notice of restoration should be sent to the teacher in a 
form as follows: 

No. VIII. 



Notice of Restoration. 



To M 



The bearer, who was suspended under the 

Attendance Rule, on the. day of. 187 , 

is hereby restored to school. 

Respectfully, 

187 Supt. 



148 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

jj. Summary of attendance. — For convenience of 
reference, the "statements" embraced in the monthly re- 
ports should be tabulated. The blank form which follows 
is conveniently arranged for this purpose. These blanks 
should be of sufficient width to contain the statistics of all 
the schools of the same grade. Thus, if there are twelve 
primary schools, eight grammar schools, and a high school, 
four blanks will be needed to tabulate each month's statistics; 
and it will be found very convenient in practice to use a 
fifth blank for a "summary," which shall exhibit the aggre- 
gate statistics of each department, and the grand total of all 
the statistics for the month. This last sheet will exhibit the 
exact condition of the schools, as to attendance, at the close 
of each month; and, at the close of the year, will show at 
a glance the grand summary of all the results. 

When the number of schools does not exceed fifteen, 
perhaps the better plan is to have the blank wide enough 
to contain, in a single page, the statistics of each month. 

It is a good plan, at the end of each year, to arrange 
these sheets in serial order and have them bound. The 
successive volumes are invaluable as sources of exact infor- 
mation on material points in the history of the school. 
From them may be learned the names of teachers; their 
departments; the attendance in each grade, in each school; 
the aggregate enrollment; the absolute enrollment; the whole 
number of boys and girls; the fluctuations in attendance in 
every part of the system; the average daily attendance; the 
average time each pupil has attended school; the per cent 
of attendance of boys, of girls, and of the school as a whole. 
No superintendent or principal should neglect, even at con- 
siderable personal expense, to carry into effect such a simple 
system as this. It is indispensable for intelligent supervision, 
and is a priceless treasure to successors in office. 



Statistical Report of the 

SUMMARY OF ATTENDANCE, ENROLLMENT, ETC., FOR THE fORTION OF THE YEAR ENDING 



Public Schools. 



SUPERINTENDENT. 




ABSOLUTE ENROLLMENT. 149 

By reason of a separate account which is kept of the items 
relating to each sex, this blank is somewhat longer than con- 
venience alone would require; but this objection may be 
removed by folding the blank in the middle. It may then 
be bound in the same manner as a double page map. 
Some may not think it worth while to keep up the distinc- 
tion of items under "Average Number Belonging," and 
"Average Daily Attendance." 

78. Absolute enrollment. — In order to obtain the ab- 
solute enrollment from the "Summary," subtract the sum 
of the 13th column from the sum of the 4th column. To 
find the absolute enrollment in a given grade, subtract from 
its whole enrollment the " intra-grade " (§70) transfers. The 
general accuracy of the "Summary" may be tested by 
adding to the "Whole Number Enrolled" the number of 
"Reentries," and subtracting from this sum the "Number 
Left." The remainder should be the "Number Belonging" 
on day of date. If there is a discrepancy between these 
results, there is either an error in adding or an error in 
some teacher's report. In the latter case, test the consoli- 
dated report of each department, as above, and when the 
error has been traced to its general source, turn to the 
records of this department and test each teacher's report 
till the exact place of the error is discovered. 

79. Average per cent of attendance. — The average 
per cent of attendance should be found not by taking an 
average of the averages as given in columns 35, 36, and 
37, but by dividing one-half of the 26th, 27th, and 28th 
columns, respectively, by the sum of the 23d, 24th, and 
25th columns, respectively. 

80. Average attendance in months. — To find the 
average number of months which each pupil has attended 
school, reduce the aggregate attendance in half-days to 



i5° 



SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 



school months (by dividing by forty), and divide this result 
by the absolute enrollment, which, of course, is the whole 
enrollment less the "Transfers." 

81. Fluctuations in attendance. — Fluctuations in en- 
rollment, number belonging, average number belonging, and 
average daily attendance, may be graphically exhibited as in 
the following diagram : 



Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May 


June 


1575 


















1574 


1550 


















1571 


1525 














1542 


s 




1500 




















1475 




















1450 




















1425 




















1400 












H01 








1375 










^ 


1395 








1350 








/ 


1375 










1325 




















1300 






1307 














1275 




j$& 


1288 














1250 


1256 


<&/ 
















1225 


/ 


















1200 


c 


















1175 














1182^ 






1150 














/ 


\ 




1125 


~U33 ■"---- - 


.U34_ 


J13>%e 








/ 


\ 




1100 


1122 


*--<^ 


1103 ^ 


n_u 


n><* 


Belongi 


i g /1106 


1114 


\1U6 


1075 










1087, 


k 1096 


/ 




\ 


1,050 


_1062___ 


^Average 


1055 V 


1057 




X s 


'1056 




1068 


1025 






lo-Tr 


J.048 








1126 




1000 








1016 


DaW 


.1019 


#&£ 


'l018 


10?S 


975 












1009 









SCHOOL DIRECTORY. 151 

By doubling the number of lines, these fluctuations may- 
be exhibited in their relation to sex. 

This is not a mere curiosity, but a striking exhibition of 
important facts in their relation to one another and to the 
different portions of the school year. By means of colored 
pencils, the four items above represented may be vividly 
exhibited on one page; and a series of such charts would 
form a most interesting and valuable record. 

82. School Directory. — It is very desirable to obtain 
a complete directory of all the pupils enrolled in a public 
school. Occasions are ever occurring in which it is neces- 
sary to ascertain one or more facts relative to a pupil, such 
as his residence, the names of his parents, his age, his grade, 
to what building he belongs, etc., etc. 

At the opening of the year, and subsequently as new 
pupils enter the school, it is an excellent plan to require 
each pupil to nil out a blank similar to the following: 

No. X. 



My name is 



My father's name is 



My age is years, months, 

I live on street, No. 



As soon as possible after the filling of these blanks, each 
teacher should embody the items in a form similar to the 
following (No. XL), arranging the names in alphabetical 
order. These lists should then be sent to some designated 
place for copying into a permanent record. 



*5* 



SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 



No. XI. 





u 

<v 






u5 

< 

s 

w 

« 




























w 

Q 

< 






























CHOOLS OF . 
187 


3 

3 




























< 




























POLLED IN THE PUBLIC S 
For the Year 


w 
u 

2 
W 
Q 
00 
w 

K 

"h 
Z 
W 
« 




























h 

Z 

w 

K 
< 
a. 

fc 

O 

W 
£ 
< 
2 




























w 

CO 

a. 
a, 






J 

E 

D 
P< 

O 

< 
z 





























AGES OF PUPILS. 153 

83. Ages of pupils. — An interesting item of school 
statistics is the respective ages of the pupils enrolled in the 
several grades. The following table, No. XII, presents a 
convenient form for recording facts of this kind. 

From such a table there may be learned the whole num- 
ber of pupils of each specified age; the average age of the 
pupils in each class of the several grades; the average age 
of the pupils in each grade, and of the pupils as a whole. 
The general fact revealed by such statistics is the early with- 
drawal of pupils from school. It appears from the report 
of one of the largest school systems in the West, that pupils 
from six to nine years inclusive constitute 52.8 per cent of 
the whole enrollment; those from ten to thirteen, 36.2 per 
cent; and those from fourteen to seventeen, and over, n 
per cent. Different schools will of course give somewhat 
different results; and it is probably true that the average 
age of pupils in smaller towns is greater than that of pupils 
in corresponding grades in the larger cities. 

It is important for superintendents to watch the fluctua- 
tions in the ages of the pupils enrolled in the several classes 
and grades. In truth, this is one of the most delicate tests 
of the working of a school system. If there is a gradual 
fall in the average age, it may be due to an improved quality 
of instruction whereby pupils make more rapid progress; or 
it may arise from the fact that there is not matter enough in 
a part of the course of instruction. If the average*age rises, 
the fact may be due to opposite causes, or it may result from 
some change in the circumstances of the community whereby 
older children are kept in school for a greater length of 
time. At least it is certain that some causes are at work, 
which it is well to know. 

Great regularity should be observed in compiling statistics 
relative to the ages of pupils. Not only should the ages be 



154 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

taken in some uniform manner, as in years or months, or 
with reference to the nearest birthday; but they should all 
be taken with reference to a fixed period, as the opening of 
the school year, its close, or some intermediate point, as 
January i . If teachers follow different methods, an element 
of uncertainty will be introduced into these statistics. Per- 
haps the simplest method is to take each pupil's age at his 
nearest birthday, reckoning from January i. 

The items for table No. XII may be gathered from the 
various schools by the use of the form on page 155, which 
may be filled out at the close of each year from the school 
register. 

84. Corporal punishment report. — When teachers 
inflict corporal punishment, several good results will come 
from requiring a written report of each case. All are agreed 
that this mode #of punishment should be reduced to its 
minimum of frequency; and if teachers know that they must 
make a statement of each case, showing the offense, the 
degree of punishment, etc., etc., they will exercise the 
greatest caution in administering this mode of correction. 
Merely as a wholesome check on the use of the rod, such a 
statement should be required. 

A still further advantage is the means thus afforded the 
principal or superintendent of knowing the facts in cases 
where complaint is made. 

No. XIV, on page 156, is suggested as a convenient form 
for such a statement. It is borrowed from Supt. Rickoff, 
of Cleveland. 

85. Tabulated statement of cases of punishment. 

— From a collation of such reports, facts of great signifi- 
cance may be elicited. Thus from statements of this char- 
acter, extending over a series of years, and embracing a 
large number of cases, I find the following facts as to the 



H 



TAT. 



AGES OK PUPILS ENTERED IN RESPECTIVE GRADES. 

N. B.— IN THIS TABLE THE PUPILS ARK REPORTED IN THE GRADES THEY FIRST 



I- NThkhU. 



AGES. 


l'RIIV 


ARY. 


GRAMMAR. 


N'o. XII. 1, 
HIGH SCHOOL. 


face ,, ,54. 


In Yfaks 


HOYS. 




..,K,S. 


,.ov.s. 


<« RLS . 


HOV.S. 


CIRI.S. 






A B C 1> 


A 


| C j D 


A 


B 


c 


I) 


A 


B 


c 


1) 


A 


B 


C 


I, 


A 


B 


c 


D 




6 
7 
S 
9 
10 

12 
13 
14 
15 
16 




















































TOTAL. 




















































Average Age. 






































. .. 













No. XIII. 



NUMBER OF PUPILS. 



155 



NUMBER OF PUP] 

AT THE RESPECTIVE AGES. 


[LS 








7radr. 


Clas$ } 


Tp.ar.hsr. 






AGES. 


BOYS. 


GIRLS. 


BOTH. 




5 Years, 










6 " 










7 " 










8 " 










9 " 










10 " 










11 " 










12 " 










13 " 










14 










15 " 










16 " 










17 










18 " 










19 " 










20 " 











156 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. No. XIV. 



Report of the Punishment of 

{name) (age) 

(residence) 



Date of ■punishment 187 



The teacher will please to write answers to the following: 
1. For what offense was the pupil above-na?ned punished '? 



What is his (or her) general character? 



3 . What do you know of the home influences surrounding h ? 



4. What other means have you employed for h reform ? 



5. Were h parents duly notified of h conduct before you 
resorted to corporal punishment? . 

What was the nature of the response ? 



6. Has ever been referred to the principal of the school 
or to the superintendent? 

How many times? - — 



7. What was the result of the pwiishment? 



Teacher. 



STATEMENT OF CASES OF PUNISHMENT. 157 

age at which pupils are most unmanageable. The figures 
indicate the per cent of the aggregate number of cases 
which fall under the several ages : 



Ages. 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


Cases. 


1.2 


4.8 


11 


12 


18 


16.8 


15 


10.8 


7 


J -5 


1.1 



Again, if we group these cases under the departments of 
the school in which they occurred, we shall have the follow- 
ing result: 





PRIMARY. 


SECONDARY. 


GRAMMAR. 


Ages. 


6-9 


9-12 


12-16 


Cases. 


29. 


50.2 


20.8 



Finally, if these cases be tabulated under the months and 
terms of the school year, we shall have the following result: 



FALL TERM. 


WINTER TERM. 


SPRING TERM. 


Sept. 


Oct. 
156 


Nov. 
134 


Dec. 

8.2 


Jan. 

IO. 


Feb. 
12.6 


Mar. 
8.2 


April 
9- 


May 
7-5 


June 

4-5 


48.2 


V 

30.8 


\ V 

2T. 



To say the least, it is evident that these results are not 
fortuitous. In each case there is a law discernible. With 
respect to age, it has no doubt been observed by all experi- 
enced superintendents that the pupils who are most un- 
manageable are found in secondary or intermediate schools, 
but it may not have occurred to all that the troublesome age 
par excellence is ten years. We need not go far to find 
an explanation for the general fact that pupils from ten tQ 



158 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

twelve years of age are the most difficult to manage. Mere 
children have little mastery over themselves, and must there- 
fore be governed to a great extent by authority; but as they 
approach adult age, there has been such a .development of 
the moral sense and of self-control, that the chief governing 
force is principle — a regard for what is right and becoming. 
The intermediate age is a period of transition, in which the 
child is influenced alternately by authority and by principle; 
and like all periods of transition from one regime to another 
this is characterized by outbreaks of passion and freaks of 
impulse, which lead to the necessity of correction. 

With respect to misdemeanors which are punishable by 
suspension, the chief of which is truancy, it is perhaps a 
singular fact that the culminating period is at the age of 
twelve. 

It will be observed from the last table that the necessity 
for punishment culminates toward the middle of each term; 
while, on the whole, there is a steady decline as the year 
advances. This, doubtless, is owing to the fact that pupils 
are brought more and more under subjection to authority; 
and I venture to express the opinion that if such a table 
were to embody the results of an entire administration by a 
competent, steady hand, it would exhibit the same law of 
decline in cases of punishment. 

Without doubt, different schools will give somewhat dif- 
ferent results; but in every case where a steady line of 
policy is pursued, the results, such as they are, will indicate 
some law which it is important to know. 

86. Daily programme. — Every teacher should be re- 
quired to follow a carefully prepared daily programme. 
This will tend to give system and exactness to school-room 
work. One copy of this programme should be sent to the 
principal or superintendent, and another posted in a con/ 



No. XV. 



DAILY PROGRAMME. 



159 



Central 




PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 


School. 

DAILY 


Grammar Grade. 

PROGRAMME. 


FORENOON. 


TIME. 


LENGTH. 


RECITATIONS. 


9 o'clock. 


5 minutes. 


Opening Exercises. 


9-5 


20 " 


Writing. 


9- 2 5 


20 " 


Reading — 1st Division. 


9-45 


3° 


Arithmetic — 2d " 


10.15 " 


30 


Grammar — 1st " 


10.45 " 


3° 


History — 2d " 


11. 15 


15 


Spelling — 1st " 








1 I 


AFTERNOON. 


1.30 o'clock. 


15 minutes. 


Reading — 2d Division. 


i-45 


30 


History — 1st 


2.15 " 


30 


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SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 



No. XVI. 



PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 


Central School. Grammar Grade. 

POSITION OF CLASSES. 

(This Report is to be rendered to the Superintendent at the beginning and middle 
of each term.) 


TEXT-BOOKS. 


NO. 


CLASS. 


PAGE. 


Harvey's Fifth Reader. 


40 


A 


190 


White's Complete Arithmetic. 


" 


" 


130 


Eclectic Intermediate Geography. 


« 


" 


50 


Harvey's Practical Grammar. 


" 


" 


Il8 


Venable's United States History. 


" 


" 


125 


































































































Dec. 20, 1874. 


r PEAC TTTr ' p 









THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF THE CITY OF 



Position <>/' Glasses on tlx 



day of. 



.18 



vo. XVII.— Lo lac 



TTTTTT 



CHART OF TEXT-BOOK WORK. 161 

spicuous place near the teacher's desk. A convenient form, 
where a school is composed of a single grade of pupils, 
is given on page 159. 

87. Chart of text-book work. — An important point 
in school supervision is to ascertain the degree to which 
each school conforms to the established course of study. 
This information may be very conveniently collected by 
means of a blank, called "Position of Classes," which 
teachers should be required to fill out at stated periods. 
A report of this kind, furnished by Supt. Doty, is presented 
on page 160. 

The information contained in these reports, if embodied 
on a single page, will give a complete chart of the text-book 
work; and is one of the most useful aids to supervision. 
For its general utility, it should rank next to the ' ' Summary 
of Attendance;" and whenever the number of schools ex- 
ceeds ten, such a chart should be constructed. A little skill 
in ruling will enable the principal to improvise such a blank, 
if it is not thought best to have them printed in the usual 
way. A specimen of this chart faces this page. 

This chart is of great assistance in making those redis- 
tributions of pupils which are necessary at the close of 
each school year. By this means, a large school may be 
rearranged somewhat as military forces are distributed by 
the aid of maps of the seat of war. It is well to have an 
actual commencement at the close of the school year. 
The promotions having been decided on, and the material 
of each school fixed from a careful study of the whole 
system as revealed by the chart, each pupil should be sent 
to the place which he is to occupy during the next year. 
Important advantages are derived from such a practice. 

(1). There is the general satisfaction which is felt when 
a definite arrangement has been made. 

S. S. — 14 



1 62 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

(2) The mind of the pupil is in repose, ready for the 
relaxation which the vacation should bring. 

(3) The greater part of that confusion which usually at- 
tends the opening of the year is avoided. 

A very convenient way to preserve these charts is to have 
a "stub-book" prepared, of the requisite size, in which these 
blanks are to be inserted as they are filled out, placing the 
first one at the end of the book, and the others in suc- 
cession above it. 

88. Notification to parents. — It has already been 
remarked, incidentally, that it is very desirable to keep 
parents fully informed of the difficulties into which their 
children have fallen, or are likely to fall. Education has 
been too exclusively relegated to teachers; and parents too 
generally feel that they have nothing to do with the instruc- 
tion of their children. This I believe to be one of the 
weak points in the educational policy of the day. Unless 
the work of the teacher is supplemented by some attention 
on the part of parents, it is scarcely possible for school 
instruction to be eminently profitable. The parent should 
cooperate with the teacher in a positive manner both in the 
case of instruction and in that of discipline. So far as 
possible, teachers should become personally acquainted with 
parents, and thus prepare the way for intelligent coopera- 
tion; but as this is frequently impossible, to any consider- 
able extent, teachers should communicate with parents by 
note or by printed forms. When pupils, through neglect 
or through inability, are in danger of falling out of their 
classes, parents should be made acquainted with the plain 
facts in the case, in the hope that they may stimulate their 
children to greater exertion, or that, in the event of disaster, 
they may the more willingly acquiesce in the changes which 
shall seem necessary. 



NOTIFICATION TO PARENTS. 163 

, If parents are not forewarned in such cases, there is just 
ground to charge teachers with neglect of duty. A blank 
of the following form affords a convenient means of com- 
municating with home authorities: 

XVIII. 



187 

m ; 

Your attention is respectfully called to the fact 

that is not doing the kind and 

amount of work which are necessary in order that he may 
be promoted with his class at the close of this year. 

The chances of promotion do not depend solely on the 
final examination, but quite largely on the quality of each 
day's recitations. 

Hoping to receive your cooperation, 

I am, very respectfully, 

Teacher. 



It is equally important to warn parents of the bad con- 
duct of their children. In nearly all cases where there is 
good family government, it is sufficient to notify parents of 
the misconduct of their children, to have it corrected. It is 
not meant by this that every trivial matter should be re- 
ported in this way; such a course would bring the authority 
of teachers into contempt. But when pupils show a persist- 
ence in bad conduct, which ordinary admonition does not 
correct, and which promises to result seriously, it is the duty 
of teachers to notify parents of the facts in the case. Such 
notifications may be made in the following form: 



1 64 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. XIX. 



M. 



I am sorry to inform you that 
causes me considerable trouble by 



I have used all the mild means in my power to correct this 
fault, but thus far with no satisfactory results. Your at- 
tention is now called to the matter in the hope that your 
influence may prevent more serious trouble. 
Very respectfully, 



.Teacher. 



.187 



In high schools, where the requirements as to class-stand- 
ing should be more exact (§108), parents should be notified 
in every instance when pupils fall below the standard. In 
this, as in all similar cases, it is best to send these notices 
by third parties, preferably by post, and not by pupils 
themselves. The temptation to destroy messages which are 
known to contain unwelcome tidings should be avoided. 

89. Teacher's class-book. — In those grades in which 
promotions are based, in part at least, on the average 
quality of the pupil's class-work, an accurate record should 
be kept of each recitation. It is not an easy matter to 
estimate every recitation at its just value; but when lessons 
of reasonable length have been assigned, and pupils have 
been called on to reproduce the knowledge which should 
have been acquired, a conscientious and judicious teacher 
ought to be able to assign a value to each recitation with 
a good degree of accuracy. The mere fact that recitations 



MARKING RECITATIONS. 165 

are marked is a healthy stimulus to industry; and when 
promotions are known to depend on the average of these 
marks, pupils feel it necessary to make a steady effort to 
acquit themselves creditably. There are but few pupils who 
do not need a stimulus of this kind; and a judicious 
system of marking will give a tone to ordinary class-work 
which can be secured in no other way. 

It is of considerable importance to decide on a scale of 
marks. Some prefer 100, some 10, and others 5. The first 
seems to allow to great a latitude; the teacher is in danger 
of forming a loose estimate of values. The last is, perhaps, 
too limited in its range, not elastic enough to represent 
all the variations in quality which recitations are likely to 
present. 

90. Marking recitations. — The question which should 
be ever present to the mind of the teacher is: To what ex- 
tent has this pupil comprehended the truths which are set 
forth in the lesson which is in process of recitation? The 
mere fact that a pupil can repeat the very words of the 
text is in itself no proof that he has comprehended the 
thought of the author; but when he gives a clear statement 
of the thought in his own language, there is but little room 
to doubt the reality of his knowledge. While it is extremely 
desirable that a recitation should be made in a form which 
is strictly grammatical, it is not just to lower the marking 
for mere grammatical errors. A pupil who is reciting a 
lesson in astronomy should be marked according to his 
knowledge of this special subject. So, too, in written ex- 
aminations, only one element should enter into the value 
which is assigned to a paper on a specified topic. Still less 
should conduct modify the marks which a teacher assigns 
to a recitation. Possibly a boy while reciting in grammar 
may adopt a surly or impudent manner; but if his knowl- 



1 66 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

edge of the subject is all that can reasonably be required, 
his recitation should receive a high mark notwithstanding 
his bad conduct. This should receive attention in another 
way. 

It is not a good plan to allow pupils access to the class- 
book. As they are not competent to judge of the grounds 
on which the marks are based, they should not be allowed 
an opportunity to call in question their accuracy. For those 
who adopt a system of examinations similar to the one 
recommended in section 108, the form of class-book oppo- 
site will be convenient. 

91. Record of monthly and term standing. — It will 
be found useful to keep two additional records in connec- 
tion with the class-book, especially if it is thought best to 
adopt the system to which reference has just been made. 
This system turns a pupil's class-work successively into 
monthly standing, term standing, and final standing. A 
pupil's monthly standing is derived from the average of his 
recitations during the month, in connection with the result 
of his monthly examination. Term standing is derived from 
the average monthly standing, and the result of the term 
examination; while final standing is based on an average 
of the term standing, and the final examination. Each 
teacher should keep a distinct record of the above items, 
and should submit it, at stated periods, to the principal of 
the school, in order that he may take an account of each 
pupil's final standing. On page 168 is a specimen of a 
teacher's record of monthly and term standing. 

92. Principal's record of final standing. — Finally, 
there is required in every efficient high school a permanent 
record of every pupil's final standing. A specimen page of 
such a register is presented on page 170. 

The advantages of such a record are obvious. Its general 



No. XX. 



TEACHER'S CLASS-BOOK. 



167 

















































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SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 



No. XXI. 



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THE SCHOOL REGISTER. 169 

tendency is to give accuracy and exactness to high school 
management. It is easy to tell at a glance the quantity and 
quality of every pupil's work, to tell what studies of the 
course he has completed, and, consequently, whether he is 
entitled to the honor of graduation. The full advantages of 
this whole system will be most fully appreciate'd when there 
is a general change in the administration of the school. 
The three books which have been described have the same 
relation to the condition of a school as a merchant's day 
book, journal, and ledger have to the condition of his busi- 
ness; and there is no argument in favor of an exact book 
account in general business, which is not applicable to the 
affairs of a high school. 

93. The school register. — A most important duty of 
a teacher is to keep a neat, accurate, and legible school 
register. The facts of attendance should be entered with 
perfect accuracy, and in such a manner as to be readily 
comprehended. All the books in a given school should be 
kept after the same system. The registers should all be of 
one form, and the entries should be made in the same 
manner. 

It is a saving of time to record the absence of pupils, and 
not their attendance. 

Well arranged school registers are readily procurable from 
any publisher or bookseller, and no special form need be 
suggested. 

94. Cost of education per capita. — It is no dis- 
credit to mathematical science to say that figures sometimes 
lie, not voluntarily, of course, but on compulsion. The 
ground for thus challenging the truth of a time-honored 
maxim is the reckless way in which some superintendents 
manipulate statistics to show at what a cheap rate they 
supply educational advantages. 

S. S.-15. 



170 



SCHOOL SUPERVISION. No. XXII. 



































































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Copyright, 1875, .By JTOson, Hinkle & Co. 



COST OF EDUCATION PER CAPITA. 171 

The cost of education per capita is one of the least trust- 
worthy items of school statistics. The difficulty lies partly 
in the fact that there is no settled agreement on the items 
which should constitute the aggregate cost; and somewhat 
on a desire to exhibit the comparative cheapness at which 
education is furnished under particular systems. A large 
divisor is found in the aggregate number of pupils enrolled; 
while a small dividend is secured by leaving out of account 
sundry items of expense, which, nevertheless, must be paid 
out of the public funds. 

It is surely a discredit to our profession that so important 
an item as the actual cost of educating a pupil in our public 
schools can not be determined with sufficient accuracy to be 
used in the comparison of different systems. The National 
Teachers' Association, seconded by the Bureau of Education, 
has recently made an attempt to introduce a uniform method 
of selecting the data for this computation. For the divisor, 
the average daily attendance is taken. This is surely more 
just than to take the whole enrollment, since this last num- 
ber includes many pupils whose actual membership is only 
a fraction of the school year. If all superintendents would 
adopt this one item, at least one element of certainty would 
be introduced into the computation of this important result. 
As to the items which should constitute the dividend, there 
is no general agreement; yet it seems that there ought to be 
no peculiar difficulty in the way of an understanding on this 
point. 

Funds raised by tax for the support of schools are applied 
in two ways — to defray current expenses, and to make per- 
manent investments. Superintendence, instruction, the care 
of buildings and grounds, warming, incidentals, repairs, and 
whatever else disappears in the using, are items of current 
expense; while under permanent investments are to be in- 



172 



SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 



eluded new buildings, libraries, apparatus, and whatever else 

may serve the needs of successive generations of children. 

For the sake of distinctness, these items may be tabulated as 

follows : 

Superintendence ; instruc- 
tion; care of buildings and 
grounds ; warming ; insur- 
ance; incidentals, such as 
ink, paper, crayons, print- 
ing, chemicals, brooms, etc. , 
etc., and whatever else dis- 
appears in the using. 



School funds 

may be 

devoted to 



Current 
expenses. 



Permanent 
investments. 



Buildings; grounds; appa- 
ratus; library; permanent 
improvements ; and what- 
ever else may serve the 
needs of successive genera- 
tions of children. 



It is evident that all items of current expense should be 
included in the dividend which is to be employed in com- 
puting the average cost of education per pupil; but as the 
benefits of all permanent investments will be distributed 
among successive generations of pupils, only the interest on 
the capital invested in school property should be added to 
the items which are to be included in each year's expense 
account. I see no reason why the average cost per year of 
educating a pupil in our public schools should not be com- 
puted as follows: 

To the items of current expense as explained above, add 
the interest at the current rate on the true valuation of 
school property, and divide this sum by the average daily 
attendance of pupils. This will at least serve as the basis 



COMPARA TIVE ST A TISTICS. 



173 



for a comparison of results, and, at the same time, will give, 
within very narrow limits, the absolute cost of education per 
pupil. 

Let us suppose that by accurate employment of these 
data it should appear that the average cost of education in 
one case is $15 per year, and, in another, $18. It is plain 
that no valuable information can be derived from this bald 
statement of facts. We want to know what special elements 
in the computation have given rise to this difference in re- 
sults. The real significance of statistics of this class can be 
revealed only by a somewhat minute analysis of the items 
which constitute the ascertained cost. The following table 
is designed to suggest the general method by which such an 
analysis may be made : 

ANALYTICAL TABLE. 

SHOWING THE AVERAGE COST OF EDUCATION PER PUPIL. 





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$2.96 


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4,700 


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174 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

95. Comparative statistics. — A very important ele- 
ment in modern educational progress is the comparative 
study of school systems with a view to ascertain the net 
practical results and the means by which they were pro- 
duced. This is, in fact, an application of the experimental 
method which characterizes modern thought; the very oppo- 
site of that high a priori method which consists in evolving 
from the depths of the inner consciousness both the general 
plan and the special methods of an educational system. 

To make comparisons possible, uniform data must be 
furnished — there must be a general agreement on a system 
of school statistics. At the meeting of the National Teach- 
ers' Association, at Detroit, in August, 1874, there was 
adopted the following schedule of "Inquiries respecting 
city school systems." The National Bureau of Education 
has approved this plan, and has recommended it to the 
attention of all city superintendents of schools. The com- 
missioner of education is rendering invaluable aid in giving 
shape to our national system of education; and superintend- 
ents, for the sake of the common good, should render him 
the most hearty cooperation. 



CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 



175 



Inquiries Respecting City School Systems. 



Name of city, 



2. State,. 



3. Total population according to census of 1870, 
Estimated present population, 



4. Legal school age, 



5. Number of school 
population. 



between. 



and 



Under 6, 

Between 6 and 16, 
Over 16, 

Total number of legal school age, 



6. Whole number of different children, 
enrolled in public schools, exclud- 
ing duplicate enrollments. 



' Under 6, 
Between 6 and 16, 
Over 16, 
Total, 



7. Number of school days in the year, 

8. * Number of days the schools were taught, 



9. Estimated real value of property 
used for school purposes. 



Grounds or sites, $- 
Buildings, 
Furniture, 
Apparatus, 
Total, 



10. Taxable property. 

11. Tax for school pur- 
poses. 



Estimated cash value of $- 

Assessed valuation of 



f Esti 
I Ass( 

{Mills pe 
Mills pei 



r dollar of cash value, 3 
per dollar of assessed value, 



years. 



* This may differ from the " Number of school days in the year " on account 
of holidays other than those which are provided for in the standing rules of the 
schools. 



176 



SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 



12. Number of school-rooms in 
which pupils are seated for 
both study and recitation 
under charge of one teacher, 

13. Number of school-rooms in 
charge of two or more teach- 
ers teaching in the same 
room or in recitation-rooms. 

14. Number of rooms used for 
recitation only. 

15. Number of different school 
buildings, not counting 
more than one upon a single 
lot unless they be used for 
different classes of schools, 
as for grammar and for high, 
high and normal, etc. 

16. Number of sittings for study. 

17. Number of teach- f Males, 
ers, Jan. 1, includ- X Females, 
ing principals. (_ Total, 



Elementary 
Si hools 



2§ 






I 5 

6 






CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 



177 



f Males, 
1 3. Average number of ^ , 

43 < Females, 

teachers employed. I T , 



19. 



20. Average daily attendance per 
teacher, excluding special 
teachers. 



'o 

O 


Enrolled. 


( Males, 
\ Females, 
I Total, 


* 

S-i 


Average 


C Males, 




daily 


^ Females, 


3 
£ 


attendance. 


* I Total, 



A B C D E F G 



* To be obtained by dividing the actual attendance by the number of days the 
school was in actual session, excluding all holidays and days on which all the schools 
of the city were dismissed. 



RECEIPTS. 



21. Balance on hand from last school year, 

. , - .- f State, $. 

22. Amount received from interest \ 

< County, 
on permanent funds. I _ 

V. Local, 



23. Amount received from taxation. 



( State, 
( Local, 



24. Amount received from tuition fees, 

25. Amount received from all other sources,'* 

Total receipts, 



* Such as donations, bequests, fines, licenses, sale of property, etc. If any of these 
go into a permanent fund, the interest only should be reported. 



178 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

EXPENDITURES. 

For sites and buildings, $- 

26. Permanent. \ For furniture and apparatus, . 
For libraries, 



27. Payment of indebtedness 
incurred in previous ' 
years. 



Bonds (including 
interest), $. 

Floating (includ- 
ing interest), 



28. Tuition. 



Cost of supervision, including sal- 
aries of principals not regularly 
employed in teaching any class 
or classes not otherwise pro- 
vided for, or a due proportion 
of salary where only part of the 
time is given to supervision, 

Amount paid for teaching, 



29. Incidental or con- 
tingent expenses. 



Officers of the board, 
secretaries, messen- 
gers, etc., 

Pay of janitors of build'gs, 

Fuel, 

Rent, 

Insurance, 

Repairs, 

School-books supplied for 
use of pupils, 

All other supplies and cur- 
rent expenses, 



Total expenditures, 



30. Average expenses 
per capita. 



Supervision and instruction 
based on average daily 
attendance, $_ 

Incidental or contingent 
expenses (29) based on 
average daily attend'ce, . 



CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 



179 



ANNUAL SALARIES. 
31. Annual Salaries of School Officers and Teachers. 



Of city superintendent. 

Of assistant superintendents. 

Of principals in primary schools, no 
class of which has completed the 
fourth year's course of study. 

Of assistants in primary schools. 

Of principals in grammar schools, the 
highest class of which has com- 
pleted the fourth year's course. 

Of assistants in grammar schools. 
Of principals in high schools. 
Of assistants in high schools. 
Of principals in normal schools. 



Male, 
Female, 

Male, 
Female, 

Male, 
Female, 

Male, 
Female, 

Male, 
Female, 
( Male, 
( Female, 
( Male, 
( Female, 
r Male, 
( Female, 



Of assistants in normal schools, in- ( Male, 
eluding critic teachers. ( Female, 

| Male, 
I Female, 

Music, 



Of teachers in evening schools. 



Of special teachers. 



Drawing, 
Penmanship, 



.187 



.SUPT. 



180 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

96. Concluding remarks on records and blanks. — 

In what has preceded, attention has been called to such 
records, reports, and blanks as are deemed necessary for 
the organization and efficient management of a graded- 
school. Nothing has been commended to the attention of 
the reader which is not known to have a real value. It is 
believed that no first-class school can be successfully con- 
ducted without using forms similar to those which have been 
presented. In fact, I have been governed in this matter by 
what has seemed to be essential. Very many superintend- 
ents will adopt additional forms for special purposes; but 
as it is not the object of this chapter to present what is 
merely convenient, or what only peculiar exigencies may 
require, no mention has been made of forms which are not 
adapted to general use. 



CHAPTER VIII 

EXAMINATIONS. 



(t8n 



SUMMAR Y. 

Classification of pupils. The reclassification of pupils. The indi- 
viduality of pupils. Reclassification may be avoided. A final exami- 
nation not a fair test. Estimating final standing. Deciding on fitness 
for promotion. Rigor in examinations. Oral and written examina- 
tions. Conducting a written examination. High school examinations. 
Rules for a system of examinations. Deception in examinations. 
Herbert Spencer on examinations. The preparation of questions. 
Examinations to develop general principles. Public examinations. 



(182) 



EXAMINATIONS. 

97. Classification of pupils. — It has sometimes been 
urged as an objection to the graded-school system that it is a 
sort of a Procrustean bed — that the bright and the dull are 
submitted to the same process, and that both classes suffer 
from the regimen to which they are subjected; the first from 
a cramping of their energies, the second from a strain which 
their faculties are unable to bear. It is urged that it is a 
necessary result of class instruction that the individuality of 
the pupil must be sacrificed to the maintenance of mere 
system. 

Of course all classification is based on some notion of simi- 
larity, upon certain points of resemblance; but it is not re- 
quired that the objects which constitute a class shall be the 
exact copies of one another. While the classification of pupils 
is based on certain resemblances, it must necessarily admit 
certain differences. It is required that all pupils of the same 
grade shall have attainments so similar that they may derive 
advantage from simultaneous instruction. It is not necessary 
that they shall all be on the same absolute level of attainment. 
If differences of attainment and ability are incompatible with 
simultaneous school instruction, the objection lies equally 
against all association for mutual good — social, civil, and re- 
ligious. A graded system of instruction, wisely administered, 

(183) 



184 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

is more elastic than any other system of a similar nature; it 
responds more promptly to the necessities of growth, and ad- 
mits more easily of those re-adjustments which are required 
by varying rates of development. 

98. Reclassification of pupils. — It is a great error 
to suppose that a classification made at the opening of a 
school year must necessarily remain unmodified to its close. 
As soon as it is discovered that an individual pupil is so 
much in advance of his class, either in attainment or ability, 
that he deserves promotion, he is at once transferred to a 
higher grade; and, conversely, when a pupil fails, through 
indolence or inability to do the work which is required of 
his class, he is placed where his deserts entitle him to go. 
In practice, these re-adjustments are made whenever occa- 
sion requires, though these occasions are not so frequent 
as is imagined by those who are not practically acquainted 
with graded-school work. 

For, first, there are not those marked differences in ability 
which some imagine, or, at least, the cases of such superiority 
are far more rare than is popularly supposed. It will be 
readily seen, even by the inexperienced, that at the end of 
a school year, there may be such a redistribution of pupils 
that individual ability may be very exactly accommodated. 
On the supposition that a normal re-adjustment has thus 
been made, is it probable that there will be such a sudden 
evolution of ability as to make a new classification neces- 
sary? Or, on the other hand, is it probable that pupils 
will so belie their past history as to make necessary their 
transfer to a lower grade? Those critics make a sad mis- 
take who leave it to be inferred that dolts and geniuses are 
unevenly yoked in the same class. 

The differences which actually manifest themselves, and 
which require special attention, have their origin outside of 



THE INDIVIDUALITY OF PUPILS. 185 

the graded system ; it is very seldom that they are produced 
within it. The cases of most frequent occurrence in which 
a higher classification becomes necessary are those of pupils, 
relatively older than their classmates, who have been kept 
back in all their studies by disadvantages, but who, un- 
der more favorable circumstances, quickly recover their lost 
ground, and hence require a change in their classification. 

99. The individuality of pupils. — One of the objec- 
tions most frequently urged against graded-schools is the 
tendency to crush out all natural individuality — to produce a 
dead uniformity in tastes, abilities, aspirations, character. If 
this is the actual result of the graded system of instruction, 
or even if there is developed a decided tendency to produce 
such a result, the system is unnatural, and therefore to be 
condemned. But will some one tell us how the innate in- 
dividuality of a child can be smothered? If such a result 
can be accomplished anywhere, it must be in the family, 
under the persistent influence of parental training. Is it 
possible to train a family of children, born with different 
abilities, temperaments, and characters into a sameness of 
ability, temperament, and character? It is as rational to 
expect that a family of children, fed with the same food for 
a succession of years, will adopt an unnatural sameness of 
physical growth. The fact is, innate differences in character, 
in ability, in mental habit, will not be ignored, will persist 
in spite of any training to which they are subjected. The 
utmost that can be done is to modify individual peculiarities 
to such a degree as to make human association possible and 
mutually profitable. 

100. Reclassification may be avoided. — Of the re- 
classifications of pupils which occur in graded-schools, the 
greater number are downwards, made necessary chiefly by 
absence or indolence. When a school is in a healthy 

S. S.-16. 



1 86 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

condition, this redistribution of pupils does not take place 
spasmodically, at a crisis, but is gradual and unobtrusive, 
creating no marked impression and leaving no tangible proof 
of its existence. In other words, that sifting of pupils which 
is thought so necessary should be done gradually during the 
year, and not en masse at its close. If a graded course of 
instruction is administered by competent teachers, the pupils 
who remain in a grade till the close of the year will, as a 
rule, be competent to enter a higher grade without a formal 
and formidable examination. The teacher who has heard 
the daily recitations of a pupil for a year, can pronounce, 
in advance, a juster opinion of his ability than can be formed 
by another after an exhaustive examination. I regard the 
formal examination of pupils at the end of the year, attended 
with its usual circumstance and ceremony, as a veritable 
crisis, dangerous to that even tenor which is characteristic 
of health and normal growth. The process of recitation is 
in fact an examination in what the pupil has learned for the 
day from his text-book; and at intervals this examination 
should be extended to what has been learned for several 
days, with a view to refresh the pupil's knowledge and to 
be sure that he is making real progress. By this means, 
whenever the teacher discovers that a pupil is losing ground 
and is no longer able to hold his position in the class, he 
should be reported for a reclassification. Of course, some 
stimulus is necessary in order to incite the average pupil to 
improve his opportunities; but it is desirable that this stim- 
ulus should be continuous and moderate, not spasmodic and 
excessive. The normal energies of the pupil should not 
remain quiescent for the greater part of the year, and then 
be aroused for a desperate struggle at the end. Some means 
should be used to convince pupils that the chief end of 
study is not to be able to "pass;" and I see no surer way 



ESTIMATING FINAL STANDING. 187 

than to withdraw the attention somewhat from the impend- 
ing crisis and fix it more firmly on the fact that each day's 
work will tell on the final result. 

101. Final examinations not a fair test. — It can 
not have escaped the attention of any who are practically 
acquainted with school affairs, that in a formal examination, 
when there is feverish anxiety as to the result, the pupils 
who are unmistakably the best prepared sometimes acquit 
themselves with the least credit; while, for a wonder, some 
whose daily record is an offense, shine with unnatural splen- 
dor. Is it just that the promotion of a pupil should be 
made to depend exclusively, or even very largely, on the 
chances of an unusual examination? Should his every 
day work during the year go for nothing? It would be 
wrong to infer from what has been said that final examina- 
tions should be abolished. The thought which is intended 
to be conveyed is that examinations should not be extra- 
ordinary occasions, veritable crises in a pupil's history, 
obstructing for a time the usual course of school affairs; but 
rather the last terms of an ordinary series of events, a 
general summary of the year's results. The fitness of a 
pupil to enter upon a higher course of study really depends 
to a considerable extent on his health, industry, punctuality, 
and general mental habits; and these are concretely repre- 
sented in the average quality and quantity of work which he 
has already done. 

102. Estimating final standing. — In the case of 
pupils who are to have a final written examination, a careful 
record of each recitation and of each monthly examination 
should be kept, and at the end of the year an average of 
these results, estimating the average of all the recitations at 
four-fifths, and the average of all the examinations at one- 
fifth, should constitute the pupil's standing for the year. 



1 88 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 



Example. 

Average of recitations 8.5 

Average of monthly examinations 8. 

Standing for the year ^ '*' ~^ = 8.4 

In estimating the final standing, the pupil's standing for 
the year should be estimated at four-fifths, and the average 
value of the examination papers at one-fifth. 

Example. 

Standing for the year 8.4 

Average value of examination papers 9. 

Final standing ±i^l±9 = 8 _ 52 

The relative value which should be assigned to the two 
items which determine a pupil's final standing is somewhat 
arbitrary, and each examiner must decide this question for 
himself. 

103. Deciding on fitness for promotion. — With 
reference to promotion, certain studies may be considered 
as outranking others. For example, if a pupil is well qual- 
ified in arithmetic, grammar, and geography, no teacher 
would be justifiable in withholding promotion because he 
is not a fluent reader, or because his penmanship and spell- 
ing are defective to a moderate extent. These deficiencies 
will not bar his progress in the higher grade, but may be 
repaired there; while an imperfect knowledge of arithmetic 
and grammar may make further progress impossible. For it 
should not be forgotten that in deciding on fitness for pro- 
motion the real question is, Can this pupil take up the 
studies of the next grade and pursue them successfully? 



RIGOR IN EXAMINATIONS. 189 

Reading, as heretofore defined (§ 49), is a most important 
acquisition; and a pupil who excels in this art should be 
very favorably regarded. For, after all, study is but atten- 
tive reading; and pupils differ from each other very largely 
in their respective ability to comprehend the thought of the 
author as expressed on the printed page. But elocution, or 
very fine reading, like extraordinary skill in penmanship, 
sometimes indicates a lack of average mental ability. 

A fictitious value is often assigned to excellence in spell- 
ing. Poor spelling is not inconsistent with high scholarship. 
Some learn to spell intuitively and are incapable of mis- 
spelling a word; while others, not endowed with great 
mechanical memory, can never become good spellers. The 
first are not to be praised nor the last blamed for what they 
can not prevent. Let it be understood that only the relative 
values of two different orders of knowledge are in question 
here. Not the least pretext is given for denying to elocu- 
tion, penmanship, and spelling a normal amount of attention. 
The time which, in the writer's opinion, should be given to 
writing and spelling in a graded course of instruction may 
be seen by consulting the courses of study as presented on 
pages 96 and 105. 

104. Rigor in examinations. — It should be kept in 
mind that no unusual rigor in examinations by the superin- 
tendent can offset poor instruction by the regular teacher. 
The true point of departure is the teacher's fitness to instruct. 
The superintendent is chiefly responsible for the quality of 
the instruction which pupils receive. His first care should 
be to secure good teaching ability, and then to direct such 
methods of instruction as will secure the desired results. 
Teachers should be held responsible for the fitness of their 
pupils to leave one point of a graded course and enter on 
another. The evident fact is that the teacher is in a position 



190 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

to form a more correct judgment on this question than any- 
one else. If the teacher's judgment is not trustworthy; if 
through favoritism or sympathy, she recommends the promo- 
tion of unworthy pupils, she should give place to one who 
can be trusted. The employment of a teacher is of itself 
an evidence of confidence in her ability; but a personal 
inspection of her work in teaching should justify or condemn 
this confidence. The examination of pupils for promotion, 
then, should be left almost entirely with teachers who are 
known to be competent and trustworthy. The superintend- 
ent should act in this case, as in all others which relate to 
the management of pupils, indirectly. 

105. Oral and written examinations. — Between the 
two modes of examination, known as oral and written, there 
are some differences which are worthy of notice. In general, 
pupils who recite by ' ' question and answer " should be ex- 
amined orally, while pupils who recite by "topic" should 
write out their examination. An oral examination will test 
the quantity of a pupil's knowledge, a written examination 
its quality. "Writing maketh an exact man." 

Younger pupils are chiefly occupied in receiving knowl- 
edge, as distinguished from reproducing the knowledge which 
has been acquired. It is only by interrogation that the mere 
child will be able to reveal the extent of his information 
derived from books, while the older pupil, having learned the 
art of expression, and having to a greater or less extent 
made a classification of his knowledge, will be able to give 
an exact statement of what he knows on an assigned topic. 

When pupils have learned to express their thoughts in 
writing with tolerable grammatical accuracy, a beginning 
may be made in written examinations, but they should not 
supersede the usual oral examination. This period is usually 
the sixth year of the graded course of instruction (§ 53). 



« 

A WRITTEN EXAMINATION. 191 

During the eighth year, written examinations should occur 
at intervals, while in the high school they should be em- 
ployed with considerable frequency. 

An incidental advantage of written examinations is the 
comparison of results which is afforded by them. Take the 
case of two grammar schools in which pupils are to be 
examined for promotion to the high school. The same 
topics being assigned to each school, and the papers being 
marked in a uniform plan, a very fair estimate can be made 
of the respective merits of the teachers from a general 
average of all the results in each case. 

Still further, these papers may serve a good purpose as 
tangible proofs of a pupil's capacity or incapacity, as the 
case may be. When promotions are withheld the justness 
of the decision may be called in question, and if so, it will be 
convenient to produce the records which tell their own story. 

106. Conducting a written examination. — In con- 
ducting a written examination for promotion from one 
department to another, the following plan is suggested: Let 
the teacher assign to each pupil a number by which his 
papers may be distinguished. Let these numbers be written 
consecutively on the left margin of the " Examination Roll." 
Opposite each of these numbers, in the appropriate column, 
place each pupil's "yearly standing." This list should then 
be placed in the care of the person who is to decide on the 
final results. The examination questions should be written 
on the board, a part at a time, and the pupil should be 
required to write the answers neatly and legibly. When the 
papers have been finished they should be folded in a uniform 
manner, and marked with the name of the topic and the 
number of the pupil. Let this course be pursued with each 
topic, and when the examination is finished the papers 
should be valued with the utmost exactness. For the sake 



192 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

of securing the greatest uniformity in marking, all the papers 
should be examined by the same person; but where this is 
impracticable, there should be an agreement on the general 
plan of marking. Usually, it is not best for a teacher to 
examine the papers written by her own pupils. The exam- 
iner ought not to know the ownership of a single paper. 

Each answer should be marked at its estimated value; 
and the sum of all the marks divided by the number of 
questions will give the average value of the paper. Mark 
this value on the paper, and when all the papers on a given 
topic have been examined, transfer these values to their 
appropriate place on the "Examination Roll." To find 
each pupil's standing, proceed as follows: First, find the 
average value of each pupil's papers by dividing the sum of 
the several values by the number of papers. Place this 
average value in its designated place. Then multiply the 
yearly standing by 4, add to this product the average of the 
examinations, and divide the sum by 5. The quotient will 
represent the final standing of the pupil. 

Example. 

Arithmetic 7.5 ^1 

Grammar 9.2 n 31.8 

„ > =^1.8. Average = - = 7.0^ 

Geography 8.1 f d s 4 ^ 

History 7. J 

Examination average 7.95 

Yearly standing 8. 2 

Final standing 4(8-2) + 7-95 = _4075 =8 

6 5 5 D 

The "Examination Roll," filled out as above directed, 
will appear as on page 193, supposing that the standard for 
"passing" is 7.5. 



No. XXIII. 



EXAMINATION ROLL 



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194 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

At this stage of proceedings the roll is to be sent back to 
the teacher, who should write each pupil's name opposite 
his number. The final results are ready to be declared. 

Pupils who have failed in such an examination should be 
allowed the privilege of another examination at the close of 
the vacation; but the second examination should be espe- 
cially searching in those studies where the greatest weakness 
has been shown. On the one hand, no slavery to mere 
system should stand in the way of a pupil's efforts to retrieve 
a failure in the regular examination; and, on the other, 
there should be no mere trifling in such matters. It must 
be only in very rare cases that a third examination is allow- 
able. 

107. High school examinations. —In the high school, 
as has already been remarked, greater prominence should be 
given to written examinations. They should take a wider 
range, and should be conducted with more system and 
exactness. A special aim in this department should be to 
cultivate accurate thinking and the accurate expression of 
thought. In other words, great prominence should be given 
to reproducing the knowledge which has been derived from 
text-book and teacher. Writing necessarily involves a class- 
ification of knowledge, each topic being a nucleus about 
which are grouped facts of a kindred nature. Scholarship 
consists in having a classified knowledge, such a systematic 
grouping of facts as will enable their possessor on occasion 
to produce all the facts which bear on a given subject. 
This process of classification should at least be begun in the 
high school; and written examinations should have this for 
one of their purposes. A very great evil in high school 
management is the multiplication of studies whereby the 
whole mental effort of the pupil is expended in memorizing 
facts which lie in the mind as a rudis indigestaque moles. 



SYSTEM OF EXAMINATIONS. 195 

No degree of true culture can be acquired under such cir- 
cumstances. The mind must have some leisure to digest 
the facts which books and teachers supply. 

In this grade, then, examinations should promote culture, 
and they should be so frequent as to divest them of all form- 
ality. At the end of each month there should be an exami- 
nation on all the work done during this period; and at the 
end of each term, an examination on the term's work; and, 
finally, at the completion of a study, an examination on the 
whole subject. 

108. Rules for a system of examinations. — To give 
regularity and efficiency to such a system of examinations, 
the following plan is suggested : — Faithfully and discreetly 
employed it will be found to produce results which are 
highly satisfactory. 

Rules for a System of Examinations. 
Monthly Examinations. 

1. The monthly examination shall be estimated as %, 
and the average of recitations as fy in estimating monthly 
standing. 

Example. 

Monthly examination, 9. 

Average of recitations, 8.5 

Monthly standing, 9 + 3(8-5) = 8.62 

2. Any pupil falling below the required standing (7.5), for 
two consecutive months, shall be dismissed from the class. 

Term Examinations. 

3. The term examination shall be estimated as ^, and the 
average monthly standing as y 2 in calculating a pupil's term 
standing. 



196 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 



Example. 

Average monthly standing, 8. 2 

Term examination, 7.8 

Term standing, = — '- — ^-^ — = 8. 

4. When a pupil's term standing falls below 7.5, he shall 
be dismissed from the class. 

Final Examinations. 

5. On leaving a text-book, pupils shall be examined on the 
whole subject; and the average of this examination shall be 
estimated as y 2 , and the average term standing as ^ in 
calculating a pupil's final standing. 

Example. 

Average term standing, 8.6 

Average of final examinations, 8. 

O /T I o 

Final standing, = — — — — = 8.3 

6. The standard for passing a study shall be 7.5. 

7. Pupils shall be granted one reexamination if applica- 
tion is made within two days from notification of failure. 

When pupils fall below the requirements of either of the 
above rules, and are therefore in danger of falling out of 
a class, a notice like that on the opposite page should be 
sent to the parent. 

When a study has been completed, it is well to furnish 
the pupil with some evidence of the fact. It is not only a 
source of satisfaction to the pupil, but may be needed sub- 
sequently to establish the fact of his having passed the 
study. The form of certificate suggested is on page 198. 



No. XXIV. NOTICE TO PARENTS. 197 



HIGH SCHOOL. 



187 

Mr. 

The progress of your 



in for the past 



month has not been satisfactory, as will be seen from the 
following record: 

Average of recitations . . . 

Monthly examination .... 

Monthly standing 



TJie standard in marking recitations is 10; and when 
a pupil's monthly standing in a study falls below 7.5, for 
two consecutive months, he is not allowed to continue such 
study. The monthly standing is based on the recitations 
and the examination. 

Very respectfully, 
Principal. 



198 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. No. XXV. 



.HIGH SCHOOL. 



This Certifies That has 

completed the study of and has 

passed a satisfactory examination. 

187 

Teacher. 

Principal. 



Approved by Superintendent. 



iog. Deception in examinations. — Written examina- 
tions afford facilities for deception, and the utmost caution 
should be observed in conducting them. The ways of de- 
ception are as various as the inventive power of pupils. A 
text-book or a leaf smuggled into the class-room, memoranda 
on bits of paper, on sleeve-cuff, or even on finger nails, 
memories refreshed by interviews in the halls, these are but 
specimens of the means which dishonest pupils will take to 
rob themselves of their rights. It is greatly to be regretted 
that so loose a code of morals exists in schools; but the 
evil should be recognized and guarded against by every 
available resource. To begin at the beginning, an effort 
should be made to show pupils the inherent immorality of 
this species of deception; next, the opportunity to deceive 
should be taken away; and finally, pupils who persist in 
the practice should be suspended from the privileges of the 
school. 



SPENCER ON EXAMINATIONS. 199 

no. Herbert Spencer on examinations. — The prep- 
aration of suitable examination questions is a matter of ex- 
treme difficulty as well as of extreme importance. Sometimes 
a pupil's failure in an examination is due not so much to 
his own ignorance as to that of his examiners. On this 
general subject the following extract from Chapter V of 
Spencer's Study of Sociology is commended to the reader : 

' ' Some months ago, a correspondent of the Times, writing 
from Calcutta, said : 

' ' The Calcutta University examinations of any year 
would supply curious material for reflection on the value 
of our educational systems. The prose test in the entrance 
examination this year includes ' Ivanhoe.' Here are a few 
of the answers which I have picked up. The spelling is 
bad, but that I have not cared to give. 

" Question : ' Dapper man ? ' (answer 1) 'Man of super- 
fluous knowledge.' (a. 2) 'Mad.' (q.) 'Democrat?' (a. 1) 
'Petticoat government.' (a. 2) 'Witchcraft' (a. 3) 'Half- 
turning of the horse.' (q.) ' Babylonish jargon ? ' (a. 1) 'A 
vessel made at Babylon.' (a. 2) 'A kind of drink made at 
Jerusalem.' (a. 3) 'A kind of coat worn by Babylonians.' 
(q.) 'Lay brother?' (a. 1) 'A bishop.' (a. 2) 'A step- 
brother.' (a. 3) ' A scholar of the same god-father.' (q.) 
' Sumpter mule?' (a.) 'A stubborn Jew.' (q.) 'A bilious- 
looking fellow?' (a. 1) 'A man of strict character.' (a. 2) 
'A person having a nose like the bill of an eagle.' (q.) 
'Cloister?' (a.) 'A kind of shell.' (q.) 'Tavern politicians?' 
(a. 1) 'Politicians in charge of the ale-house.' (a. 2) 'Mere 
vulgars.' (a. 3) 'Managers of the priestly church.' (q.) 'A 
pair of cast-off galigaskins ? ' (a.) ' Two gallons of wine.' 

' ' The fact here drawn attention to as significant is, that 
these Hindu youths, during their matriculation examination, 
betrayed so much ignorance of the meanings of words and 



200 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

expressions contained in an English work they had read. 
And the intended implication appears to be that they were 
proved to be unfit to begin their college career. If, now, 
instead of accepting that which is presented to us, we look 
a little below it, that which may strike us as more note- 
worthy is the amazing folly of an examiner who proposes 
to test the fitness of youths for commencing their higher 
education by seeing how much they knew of the technical 
terms, cant-phrases, slang, and even extinct slang, talked by 
the people of another nation. Instead of the unfitness of 
the boys, which is pointed out to us, we may see rather 
the unfitness of those concerned in educating them. 

"If, again, not dwelling on the particular fact underlying 
the one offered to our notice, we consider it along with 
others of the same class, our attention is arrested by the 
general fact that examiners, and more especially those ap- 
pointed under our recent systems of administration, habitu- 
ally put questions a large proportion of which are utterly 
inappropriate. As I learn from his son, one of our judges 
not long since found himself unable to answer an examina- 
tion paper that had been put before law-students. A well- 
known Greek scholar, editor of a Greek play, who was 
appointed examiner, found that the examination paper set 
by his predecessor was too difficult for him. Mr. Froude, in 
his inaugural address at St. Andrews, describing a paper set 
by an examiner in English history, said, 'I could myself 
have answered two questions out of a dozen.' And I learn 
from Mr. G. H. Lewes that he could not give replies to the 
questions on English literature which the Civil Service ex- 
aminers had put to his son. Joining which testimonies, with 
kindred ones coming from students and professors on all 
sides, we find the really noteworthy thing to be, that ex- 
aminers are concerned not so much to set questions fit for 



SPENCER ON EXAMINATIONS. 20 1 

students, as to set questions which make manifest their own 
extensive learning. Especially if they are young, and have 
reputations to make or to justify, they seize the occasion for 
displaying their erudition, regardless of the interests of those 
they examine. 

" If we look through this more significant and general 
fact for the still deeper fact it grows out of, there rises be- 
fore us the question — Who examines the examiners? How 
happens it that men, competent in their special knowledge, 
but so incompetent in their general judgment, should occupy 
the places they do? This prevailing faultiness of the exam- 
iners shows conclusively that the administration is faulty at its 
center. Somehow or other, the power of ultimate decision is 
exercised by those who are unfit to exercise it. If the ex- 
aminers of the examiners were set to fill up an examination 
paper which had for its subject the right conduct of exami- 
nations, and the proper qualifications for examiners, there 
would come out very unsatisfactory answers. 

"Having seen through the small details and the wider 
facts down to these deeper facts, we may, on contemplating 
them, perceive that these, too, are not the deepest or most 
significant. It becomes clear that those having supreme 
authority suppose, as men in general do, that the sole essen- 
tial thing for a teacher or examiner is complete knowledge 
of that which he has to teach, or respecting which he has to 
examine; whereas a co-essential thing is a knowledge of 
psychology, and especially of that part of psychology which 
deals with the evolution of the faculties. Unless, either by 
special study, or by daily observation and quick insight, he 
has gained an approximative^ true conception of how minds 
perceive, and reflect, and generalize, and by what processes 
their ideas grow from concrete to abstract, and from simple 
to complex, no one is competent to give lessons that will 



202 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

effectually teach, or to ask questions which will effectually 
measure the efficiency of teaching. 

"Further, it becomes manifest that, in common with the 
public at large, those in authority assume that the goodness 
of education is to be tested by the quantity of knowledge 
acquired; whereas it is to be much more truly tested by 
the capacity for using knowledge — by the extent to which 
the knowledge gained has been turned into faculty, so as to 
be available both for the purposes of life and for the pur- 
poses of independent investigation." 

in. The preparation of questions. — In the prepara- 
tion of examination questions, the following principles should 
be observed : 

i. Their purpose should be to test the accuracy and extent 
of the pupil's knowledge; and not to display the wisdom, 
shrewdness, or sagacity of the examiner. 

2. They should be pertinent; they should relate to these 
subjects upon which the pupil has been instructed, and of 
which his knowledge is to be tested. 

3. They should be expressed in terms which the pupil can 
readily understand. 

4. They should be comprehensive in proportion to the de- 
gree of mental culture possessed by the pupil. 

5. Each question in a series should embrace about the 
same amount of matter. 

The Rhode Island Schoolmaster is authority for the state- 
ment that the following questions in history were propounded 
at an examination of teachers : 

" 1. What is your opinion of the age of the world? 

" 2. State the reasons for considering the first chapter of 
Genesis a true history? 

"3. How many questions and answers are there in the 
assembly's shorter catechism ? 



PREPARATION OF QUESTIONS. 203 

' ' Where was Job when God laid the foundation of the 
earth if the world is round? 

"What church do you belong to?" 

Questions of this irrelevant nature need only to be stated 
in order to be shunned; but they are illustrations of a fault 
which is not peculiar to New England. 

"What is the square root of 1225 ? " 

This is a suitable question for pupils who have received 
their first instruction in higher arithmetic. 

"Extract the square root of 1225, and explain the prin- 
ciples involved in the process." 

This is adapted to the capacities of pupils more advanced, 
who have been taught the science of arithmetic. 

"Demonstrate the general theorem of roots." 

This implies a still higher knowledge of mathematics, and 
is suitable for advanced pupils in algebra. 

(1) "Through what waters must one pass in sailing from 
Chicago to London ? 

(2) " Name the large rivers in South America. 

(3) " What is the capital of France ? " 

Such a series of questions, involving such unequal amounts 
of information, does not afford a fair test of the relative abili- 
ties of pupils. Three pupils answering only the first, second, 
and third, respectively, would receive the same credit ; when 
it is evident that these credits should be at least as five, two. 
and one. 

On the same principle, three series of questions, each 
having reference to a different topic, as arithmetic, grammar, 
and history, should each embrace about an equal amount of 
matter; otherwise, a general average of the three sets of 
papers might not represent the relative merits- of different 
pupils. 

The answers given to examination questions may be com- 



204 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

plete or incomplete; correct, partially correct, or incor- 
rect. An answer may be incomplete, though correct as far 
as. it goes ; or it may be partly correct and partly incorrect. 
In marking papers these facts should be taken into account. 
A pupil should be credited with whatever knowledge of the 
subject he embodies in his examination papers. 

"For twelve dollars, how many books can be bought at 
two-thirds of a dollar each?" Answer i. "You can buy as 
many books as two-thirds of twelve, which is eight." An- 
swer 2. "You can buy as many books as two-thirds is con- 
tained in twelve. To divide a whole number by a fraction, 
multiply by the denominator and divide by the numerator. 
3X12=36; 36-=-2=i8. Hence you can buy 18 books." 
Answer 3. "For $12 there can be bought as many books 
as Yz, the price of one book, is contained in 12. 1 is con- 
tained in 12, twelve times; y§ is contained in 12 thirty-six 
times; 2 /z is contained in 12 eighteen times. Hence eighteen 
books can be bought for $12 at 2/3 of a dollar each." 

The first answer indicates complete ignorance of the sub- 
ject, and should be marked o. 

The second answer is correct, but it indicates a mere 
knowledge of the rule for the division of an integer by a 
fraction. It may be marked 7.5. 

The third answer shows that the pupil knows what to 
do, how to do it, and why he does it. It indicates a 
complete knowledge of the subject in hand, and should be 
marked 10. 

"How does respiration purify the blood?" Answer 1. 
"The oxygen of the air deprives the blood of its impu- 
rities." 

This answer is correct, though incomplete. It gives evi- 
dence of a knowledge of the fact in the case, but does not 
exhibit any understanding of the process which really takes 



WRITTEN EXAMINATIONS. 205 

place. If this reply were to be given in an examination 
in physiology or chemistry, it should not be marked 
above 5. 

Answer 2. "The oxygen of the air combines with the 
carbon of the blood, which is one of its impurities, and 
expels the poisonous hydrogen." 

Here the general fact expressed in the first answer seems 
to be known; but the account of the process is both incom- 
plete and partially incorrect. This answer should not be 
marked above 6. 

Answer 3. "The chief impurities in the blood are com- 
pounds of carbon and hydrogen. The oxygen of the air 
combines with the first, forming carbonic acid, and with the 
second, producing watery vapor. These gases, along with 
the nitrogen contained in the inspired air, are expelled from 
the lungs in the process of breathing. " 

This reply may be marked 9 or 10, depending on whether 
the examination is in chemistry or physiology. 

In a mathematical examination, where the purpose is to 
test a pupil's knowledge of processes or of principles, mere 
errors in calculation, arising through inadvertance, should 
not be taken into account. 

These illustrations sufficiently indicate the principles which 
should be observed in the preparation and marking of ex- 
amination papers designed to test a pupil's fitness for promo- 
tion. 

112. Examinations to develop general principles. 

— Written examinations serve a secondary purpose of great 
importance. They assist pupils in understanding isolated 
facts — in introducing order into their mental acquisitions — 
in classifying their knowledge. A pupil may know the 
several facts which underlie a general principle; he may 
repeat the abstract formula which really includes these very 



206 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

facts, and yet he may be wholly unable to detect the indi- 
vidual cases which fall under the general law. To under- 
stand a fact, is to see it in its relations to other facts and to 
the whole of which they are the several parts. Pupils should 
be assisted in discovering these relations; and judicious 
questions are often the only aid which it is possible to 
render. 

In the illustration of these remarks, let us take the case 
of pupils who do not understand the atomic theory, that is, 
do not see in this theory the ascertained facts of chemical 
combination in their relation to one another. What is 
needed is to bring these facts into sharp outline, and, at the 
same time, into suggestive relations, so that the mind may 
discover a unity in phenomena which before seemed 
isolated facts. An examination paper, set in the following 
form, will often lead to a better understanding of a some- 
what difficult subject: 

i. Of what elements is HC1 composed? 

2. If we were to decompose two quarts of HC1, what 
volume of H would result; what volume of CI? 

3. If we were to form 1,000 cubic inches of HC1 by a 
synthesis of its elements, what volume of each must we 
take? 

4. In making this combination, if we were to take less 
than the required volume of H by one cubic inch, what 
amount of CI would remain free? How many cubic inches 
of HC1 would be formed? 

5. If we were to decompose a given weight of HC1, what 
relative weights of the elementary gases would result? What 
relative volumes of H and CI would result? 

6. What, then, are the specific weights of H and CI, re- 
spectively; what are their atomic weights'! 

7. If we were to form a given weight of HC1 by a syn- 



PUBLIC EXAMINATIONS. 207 

thesis of its elements, what relative weights of H and CI 
must we take ? 

8. In making this combination, if we were to take less 
than the required weight of H by one grain, what weight of 
CI would remain free? 

9. What, then, are the combining weights of H and CI, 
respectively ? 

This process is not prescribed as a panacea for all 
ills of this class; but, like all good remedies, discreetly 
employed, it will be found in many cases to answer a 
valuable purpose. 

113. Public examinations. — Besides the examinations 
for the purpose of reclassifying pupils, there is another pur- 
pose for which a different manner of examining is necessary. 
At least once in each year, the schools should be thrown 
open to the general public, to the end that the actual con- 
dition of the schools may be observed. It is right in itself 
that the people should know with what success the system 
is administered; and it is often of the greatest advantage to 
a school to receive the candid criticisms which intelligent 
citizens may see occasion to make. It is to be recollected 
that faults which may escape a teacher's notice may be 
detected at a glance by others who occupy a different point 
of view. 

To make such examinations effective, committees should 
be appointed by the Board of Education, composed of in- 
telligent citizens who feel an active interest in the schools 
and will be likely to form a dispassionate judgment of them. 
These committees should be requested to furnish the Board 
with frank statements of opinion respecting points on which 
improvements can be made. Such criticisms may be anony- 
mous, so far as the individual members of the committees 
are concerned. There might be a hesitation in making a 



2o8 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 

frank expression of opinion, if it were necessary to appear 
by name in connection with an adverse criticism. 

On the occasion of such examinations, the schools should 
appear in their every-day dress. What the public wish to 
observe is the ordinary work which is done in the schools. 
Every necessary precaution should therefore be used to 
prevent any display prepared for the occasion. The usual 
programme should be followed with no variations save such 
as the committees may desire to make. Teachers should be 
enjoined to present only fair specimens of their work; and 
any attempt to create a display for the occasion should be 
sufficient cause to forfeit one's position. 

Preparatory to this examination, programmes should be 
prepared indicating the time and place of each examination. 
If different committees are appointed for each grade and 
building, these public examinations may be held simultane- 

No. XXVI. 



The Public Schools of_ 



Superintendent's Office, 187 

M 

You have been appointed by the Board of Education a 
member of a Co?nmittee for examining Schools; and you will 
confer a favor by acting in this capacity. Information as to 
time and place will be found in the inclosed schedule. 

Respectfully, 
Supt. 



PUBLIC EXAMINATIONS. 209 

ously; for example, on Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday 
of the last week in the second term of the year. A copy 
of the programme, with a notice similar to the preceding, 
should be sent to each member of the committees. 

Some plan like the foregoing is one of the surest means to 
create and sustain a public opinion favorable to our public 
school system. The schools belong to the people, and they 
will prosper just in proportion as the people feel a confi- 
dence in their utility and in the honesty of purpose and 
general success with which they are conducted. 



S. S.— 18. 



INDEX 



( The numbers refer to pages. ) 



Absences, 143. 

Absolute enrollment, how ob- 
tained, 138, 149. 

Abstract and concrete in instruc- 
tion, 122. 

Ages of pupils in different grades, 
153, 154; tabulation of, 
blanks XII and XIII. 

Answers to examination ques- 
tions, how to mark, 204. 

Atomic theory, questions to de- 
velop an understanding of, 
206. 

Attendance, rules of, 142 ; sum- 
mary of, 148 ; average, in 
months, 149 ; fluctuations in, 
150. 

Blanks, teacher's certificate, 39 ; 
superintendent's register, 73 ; 
tabulation of text-book work, 
96, 105, 116, 117, 120, 121; 
programmes of recitations, 
98, 99; teacher's monthly 
report, faces 136 ; transfer 



notice, 139 ; warning notice, 
144; suspension notices, 145, 
146; notice of restoration, 
147 ; summary of attendance, 
faces 148; directory, 151, 152; 
tabulation of ages, faces 154, 
1555 report of punishment, 
156; daily programme, 159; 
position of classes, 160; chart 
of text-book work, faces 161 ; 
notification to parents, 163, 
164, 197; class book, 167; 
record of monthly and term 
standing, 168; record of final 
standing, 170; inquiries re- 
specting city school systems, 
175—179 ; examination roll, 
193; pupil's pass, 198; ex- 
aminer's card, 208. 

Boards of trustees, origin and 
nature of their powers, 27 ; 
limits of their jurisdiction, 
27. 

Body, the human, a hierarchy of 
forces, 13. 

{2J.Ol 



INDEX. 



211 



Booksellers, their rights, 66. 
Brown, Hon. Charles R., opinion 

of, in the Kalamazoo high 

school case, ill. 

Certificate, teacher's, 38, 39. 

Chart of text-book work, 161, 
blank XXII. 

Children, training of, by men and 
women, 49. 

Christianity and education, 16. 

Church and State, their respect- 
ive province, in. 

Civilization, a process of differ- 
entiation, 15. 

Class book, teachers', use of, 164; 
form of, 167. 

Classification of pupils, 33, 34; 
183-187; provisional, 97, 123; 
must be rigidly maintained, 
125. 

Colleges, relation of high schools 
to, 116, 118. 

Commencement, 161. 

Confidence, public, necessary for 
the success of schools, 209. 

Cooley, Judge, opinion of, in the 
Kalamazoo high school case, 
112. 

Corporal punishment, 56-59 ; re- 
port of, 154, 156-158. 

Cost of education/*?;- capita, 168; 
an untrustworthy item, 170; 
data for computing, 172; 
analytical table of, 173. 

Country schools, grading of, 90- 



Courses of study, to what extent 
they should be followed, 53; 
when exceptions may be 
made, 54; should be adapted 
to circumstances, 85, 86 ; 
synopsis of, 96, 105, 114- 117, 
119-121. 

Criticism of public schools, 207. 

Daily programme, form of, 159. 
Deception in examinations, how 

treated, 198. 
Directory, school, 151. 
Discipline, by men and by women, 

48 ; maintenance of, 54-56. 
Division of labor, law of, 15 ; as 

applied to education, 16; to 

work in graded-schools, 84. 

Education, science of, 20; in Great 
Britain, 21 ; cost of, per capita, 

I7I-I73- 

Emancipation of woman, 47. 

Empiricism in teaching, 18. 

Energy, mental and muscular, 13. 

Enrollment, law of, 97, 100 ; ab- 
solute, 149. 

Examination questions, for teach- 
ers, 38-41 ; preparation of, 
202; criticism of, 203, 205. 

Examinations, of teachers, 37; 
final, not a fair test, 187; 
rigor in, 189; oral and writ- 
ten, 190; written, how to con- 
duct, 191 ; record of, 193; 
rules for a system of, 195; 
deception in, 19S; 



212 



INDEX. 



Examinations, J. A. Froude on, 
200; Herbert Spencer on, 
199-202; to develop general 
principles, 205 ; public, 207- 
209. 

Excuses, character of, 143, 145' 

Family training, 48, 59. 
Final examinations, 187. 
Forms, see Blanks. 

Geography, early introduction of, 

94- 

Graded-schools, complex nature 
of, 17; pupils from, 34; 
teachers for, 42 ; defined, 8^ ; 
advantages of, 8^, 84 ; should 
conform to the needs of com- 
munities, 84, 85 ; ideal of, 
86, 87 ; transformations of, 
102; may become disorgan- 
ized, 126; reconstruction of, 
126; objections to, 183. 

Grading, data for, 88-90; limita- 
tions of data, 90; of country 
schools, 91-93; to determine 
number of studies, 92; to 
arrange text-book work, 93 ; 
programmes of recitations, 97; 
development of classification, 
97, 100; interval between 
classes, 123-125; objection to 
a multiplicity of classes, 125. 

Grammar, early introduction of, 

94- 
Gray, Mrs., quoted, 21. 
Gymnasium, the, 130-132. 



Half-day sessions, 138. 

High schools, normal instruction 
in, 49; women as teachers in, 
49; error in management of, 
85; ought not to be estab- 
lished in small towns, 109 ; 
general value of, 109 ; oppo- 
sition to, no; in court, III; 
special value of, 114; when 
this grade should be estab- 
lished, 114; courses of study 
for, 115, 116, 117, 119, 120, 
121 ; relation of, to colleges, 
116; future policy, 130; ex- 
aminations in, 194. 

Individuality of pupils, 185. 

Instruction, by men and by 
women, 49; oral and text- 
book, 119, 122. 

Kalamazoo high school case, in- 
114. 

Labor, two varieties of, 13, 17; 
the highest forms of, under- 
valued, 14; division of, 15; 
as applied to education, 16; 
skilled, need of, 24. 

Law, reign of, 19. 

Lewes, G. H., on examination 
questions, 200. 

Marking recitations, 165. 
Mental energy and muscular en- 
ergy — their antithesis, 13. 
Methods, uniformity in, 71. 



INDEX. 



213 



Monthly report, teachers', 136. 
Multiplication of classes to be 
avoided, 125. 

National Teacher's Monthly, 
quoted, 130. 

Normal instruction, 43; defense 
of, 44. 

Notification to parents, of warn- 
ing, 144 ; of suspension, 145 ; 
necessity for, 162; forms of, 
163, 164; how sent, 164, 
197. 

"Number belonging," 140, 141. 

Obedience, rendered under one 
of four cases, 57. 

Oral, instruction, 119; and writ- 
ten examinations, 190. 

Order, in buildings, 59. 

"Per cent of attendance," 140; 
rules for computing, 142 ; 
average, 149. 

Popular Science Monthly, quoted, 
21. 

Position of classes, 160. 

Practical education, 122. 

Principals, their office and duties, 
29, 30. 

Programmes of recitation, to con- 
struct, 97 ; for the primary 
grade of a loosely classified 
school, 98; for the grammar 
grade, 99 ; for a primary 
school of two grades, 101 ; 
158, 159- 



Promotion, deciding on fitness 

for, 189. 
Psychology, knowledge of, essen- 
tial, 201. 
Public opinion, to be respected, 

85. 
Publishers, enterprise of, 63. 
Punishment, corporal, 56; why 

teachers resort to it, 58; 

report of cases, 154, 156; 

tabulation of cases, 157. 
Pupils, new, classification of, 33, 

34, 183-187; ages of, 153, 

154. 

Questions for examination of 
teachers, 38-41 ; preparation 
of, 202-205. 

Reading and elocution, their rel- 
ative value, 94. 

Real-sckule, 130. 

Recesses, objections to, 61 ; new 
plan for, 62. 

Recitations, marking, 165. 

Reclassification of pupils, the 
frequent, an evil which may 
be avoided, 125, 184, 185. 

Reconstruction of schools, 126, 
127. 

Redistribution of pupils, 161. 

Register, school, 169. 

Reign of law, 19. 

Restoration of suspended pupils, 
147. 

Revue des deux mondes, quoted, 
I3i- 



2I 4 



INDEX. 



Salaries, of men and women, 51 ; 

how paid, 76. 
School directory, 151, 152. 
School register, 168. 
School supervision, need of, not 

acknowledged, 22. 
School systems, direction of, 17; 

source of their prosperity, 

31 ; city, inquiries respecting, 

175. 

"Sex in education," 136. 

Society, human, a hierarchy of 
forces, 13. 

Spencer, Herbert, quoted, 199- 
202. 

Standing of pupils, monthly and 
term, 166, 168; final, 166, 
blank No. XXII ; how to es- 
timate, 187. 

State universities, the relations of 
high schools to, 116, 118. 

Statistics, use and abuse of, 135 ; 
form for compiling, 175; com- 
parative, 1 7 1- 1 80. 

Stone, Samuel B., quoted, 49. 

Subordination, a law of organiza- 
tion, 13. 

Summary of attendance, 148. 

Superintendence, the highest form 
of labor, 15. 

Superintendents, responsibility of, 
23 ; origin and nature of their 
powers, 28; their general du- 
ties, 28; their appointment, 
when justifiable, 30 ; their 
professional rights, 32 ; to 
classify pupils, ^ ; to select 



teachers, 37 ; to examine 
teachers, 37 ; to enforce dis- 
cipline, 54 ; to secure order, 
59-61 ; to advise in choice of 
text-books, 63 ; relation of, to 
subordinate teachers, 69-71 ; 
to assist teachers, 72 ; to con- 
duct teachers' meetings, 67- 
78. 

Supervision of schools, need of, 
17; need not recognized, 22; 
time required for, 30; defect- 
ive, 126. 

Suspension for absence, 145, 146. 

System, use and abuse of, 128. 

Teachers, selection of, 36; exami- 
nation of, 37 ; certificate of, 
38, 39; for graded-schools, 
42; relative fitness of men 
and women as, 47-53; dis- 
cipline by, 55 ; relation of, to 
superintendent, 69, 70; inde- 
pendence of, 70; their pre- 
rogatives, 71 ; how best as- 
sisted, 71, 72; standing of, 
how estimated, 72 ; dismission 
of, 74; considerate treatment 
of, 75; payment of, 76; meet- 
ings of, 76-78 ; to what extent 
their acts are to be sanctioned, 
78 ; monthly reports of, 136 ; 
class-book, 164-169. 

Teaching a secular employment, 
16; empiricism in, 18. 

Testimonials, how granted, 75* 

Text-books, prescribed, use of, 53 ; 



INDEX. 



215 



their need, 62, 119; Ameri- 
can, excellence of, 63 ; use of, 
in a small school, 93-96; in 
high schools, 119; chart of 
text-book work, 161. 

Transfers, 137 ; distinction be- 
tween, 138; form of notice 
for, 139. 

Transformations through which 
a graded school may pass, 
102. 

Transition from youth to man- 
hood, 158. 

Troublesome age, the, 157. 

Trustees, boards of, may appoint 
superintendent, 27; duties of 



32 ; to prescribe text-books, 
63 ; how, should dismiss 
teachers, 74. 

Ungraded schools, pupils from, 
34- " 

Uniformities, desirable, 71. 

Warning notices, 143 ; form of, 
144. 

Woman, her place in the school- 
room, 47-53; her salary, 51. 

Written examinations, for teach- 
ers, 38-41 ; of pupils, 190- 
193 ; should develop general 
principles, 205-207. 



AUG 22 1903 



